Poor management of water sources is one of the major challenge for developing nations to provide safe water to increasing population. The Central Ground Water Board, India 2019 reports that all 13 zones of Jaipur city are in the dark zone. Dark zones are those area where the ground water exploitation is extremely high and are notified for protection by the State Government. With a population of 4.1 million, Jaipur city has a water demand deficit of around 125 MLD with dependence on ground water is increasing tremendously. The city's water table has gone down 25 metres in the last decade. Higher concentrations of fluoride, nitrate, and total dissolved solids, is a common problem in the city's ground water. Presently the city gets its water from Bisalpur dam which is 120 km away, proved to be a very costly arrangement. This paper analyses the various contaminants present in ground water. A detailed survey and data collection was done, which was further analysed through GIS spatial distribution, predicting the concentration in all 91 wards of the city. Results show that some wards are at a critical point in terms of deteriorating water quality to be addressed by city planners and urban local bodies.

  • Growing urban population in developing countries.

  • Poor management of existing water sources and depletion of water table.

  • High fluoride, nitrate TDS is a common ground water problem.

  • Distribution of drinking water through a costly arrangement.

  • GIS interpolation to ascertain various quality parameters at each ward, a guidance factor for city planners.

As the urban population is increasing it is having a huge impact on our natural resources including our ground water systems which are our primary sources of drinking water supply. With the change in climatic patterns, erratic and scanty rainfall, global warming has created imbalance in our ecosystems. With less rainfall, recharging of ground water sources is minimized or almost nil as artificial concrete jungles are giving less space for recharge. In almost all the towns and cities in India this is a very common phenomenon and depletion in ground water sources has aggravated the water scarcity. In a city like Jaipur the depletion of ground water is of the order of more than 3 metres every year.

Due to the depletion in ground water resources, there has been severe scarcity of water giving rise to issues of higher concentrations of total dissolved solids (TDS), arsenic, fluoride and nitrate in ground water. According to the United Nations Water report of 2017 (UN Water 2017), almost 2 billion people across the world are relying on contaminated, unsafe water sources. Almost 80% of waste water in developing nations is not treated. This untreated water contains human excreta which is going back into the ecosystem.

When compared to surface water sources, the bulk of ground water sources typically contain high amounts of fluoride. Fluoride in the soil is a result of the weathering of rocks, precipitation, and untreated water, primarily from the fertilizer industry (Ali et al. 2016). The majority of regular fluoride consumption comes from drinkable water (Bibi et al. 2017). Once a child's teeth have developed, the enamel fluorosis, which appears as spots on the enamel, never goes away (Karmakar et al. 2016). It is regarded as a negative consequence of fluoride interfering with ameloblasts in the growing tooth, manifesting in a disruption of the process of enamel production and increasing its porosity. The fracture risk is also increased and the bones are weakened (Bhattacharya et al. 2017).

Nitrate is regarded as a hazardous substance in drinking water, which is often derived from the ground. Methemoglobinemia is a common diseases where nitrate levels are too high. Blue-baby syndrome among infants is brought on by a blood condition (infant cyanosis). Infants’ digestive tracts are thought to be where methemoglobin is generated when bacteria convert nitrate ions to nitrite ions (Satayeva et al. 2018). One nitrite molecule reacts with two hemoglobin molecules to produce methemoglobin. In an acidic atmosphere, this reaction happens quickly. The infant experiences prolonged, potentially fatal asphyxia because the changed blood protein stops blood cells from absorbing oxygen (Knobeloch et al. 2000). Additionally, excessive nitrate consumption can cause human disorders like Alzheimer's, vascular dementia, and multiple sclerosis (Akber et al. 2020).

The total amount of active charged particles dissolved in water that contains minerals, salts, and metals, is known as total dissolved solids (TDS). TDS is relevant to the quality and consistency of water as well as water filtration systems (Aher et al. 2017). Dissolved solids are any salts, metals, minerals, anions, or cations that may dissolve in water. The TDS concentration is determined by the quantity of anions and cations in the water (Weber-Scannell & Duffy 2007).

The main purpose of this study is to analyse the key water quality parameters such as fluoride, nitrate and TDS in Jaipur city's ground water. Detailed data collected were further analysed through GIS interpolation, and concentration of these contaminants at each ward level was determined. This is an important criterion for city planners, urban local bodies and the Public Health Engineering Department (PHED) for future city planning and zones in terms of water quality.

Till now no study has been done in Jaipur city where the concentration of major parameters has been found for each ward. This study is innovative in finding key parameters for each ward.

This has been done in steps.

  • Study area: Jaipur City

  • Jaipur drinking water scenario which includes zones, abstraction of tube wells, deteriorating ground water quality, waste water management scenario, higher concentration of various contaminants including fluoride, nitrate and TDS

  • Extensive data collection in various zones

  • Interpolation of data through GIS

Study area

Rajasthan state is India's driest state, with an erratic rainfall pattern. Jaipur city, the capital city of Rajasthan, is characterized by low rainfall and high temperatures. As per Central Ground Water Board (CGWB n.d.), the annual average rainfall in the city is 504 mm, whereas the national average is 1,100 mm. The city is in the Smart City Program and is expected to have massive restructuring of urban growth. According to the Jaipur Development Authority (JDA 2020) the city had 91 wards and 8 zones. These are digitized and shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1

Wards and zones of Jaipur City.

Figure 1

Wards and zones of Jaipur City.

Close modal

Jaipur, the ‘pink city’ of India and capital of the biggest state, Rajasthan, is presently facing huge water issues in terms of quality and quantity. The city has a population of 4.1 million according to the Macrotrends estimate for the year 2022 (Macrotrends 1950–2022). This is a population increase of 2.5% in comparison to 2021 and 33% in comparison to 2011. The city had 91 wards under the 2019 classifications; in this study the basis of study was confined to these 91 wards (Vyas et al. 2020). During 2020 the city wards were reclassified into 250 wards. With 150 wards Jaipur greater has more wards than Heritage Jaipur which has 100 wards. In this study the analysis was done for 8 zones and 91 wards as shown in Table 1.

Table 1

City zones and wards

S. No.Name of zoneTotal wards
Vidyadhar Nagar 21 
Civil Lines 16 
Man Sarovar 11 
Sanganer 12 
Moti Doongri 
Hawa Mahal East 11 
Hawa Mahal West 
Amer 
S. No.Name of zoneTotal wards
Vidyadhar Nagar 21 
Civil Lines 16 
Man Sarovar 11 
Sanganer 12 
Moti Doongri 
Hawa Mahal East 11 
Hawa Mahal West 
Amer 

Jaipur drinking water scenario

Jaipur city's total water demand is more than 500 MLD. Out of this demand 275 MLD is fetched from Bisalpur dam situated 120 km from Jaipur (Jain 2020), 100 MLD is fetched from government-owned tube wells and there is demand deficit of 125 MLD. With population increasing the peak summer demand deficit presents an alarming situation. In order to cater for the remaining deficit demand there are thousands of private individual tube wells and public tube wells which are supplying water to the residents through water tankers. Residents of city have been regularly complaining about the shortage and low water supply (Times of India 2018). For example, in Barkat Nagar area the situation is critical as residents receive water only for 10–15 minutes/day. The situation gets worse when many residents use boosters. On the other hand PHED reduced the water supply by 15% in the city in 2018 due to scarcity of rains. All 13 blocks of Jaipur city are overexploited and come under category dark zone according to Central Ground Water Board (CGWB 2017). A study done on Jaipur water quality by Jain et al. (2014) determined that more than 95% of samples have high TDS, in some cases more than 1,800 mg/l. Another study done by Roberts et al. (2013) predicted that there has been a declining rainfall pattern in the last two decades. Some key issues pertaining to supplying potable drinking water are outlined below.

High abstraction from tube wells

Besides rapid urbanization in some cases ground water exploitation was done at a rate of more than 500%, one of the key factors for severe degradation of ground water quality. Illegal mining of ground water in absence of effective regulation and monitoring of drilling new tube wells have aggravated the situation. An estimated 20,000–30,000 tube wells in Jaipur city are unaccounted for (Soni 2015). Due to extreme abstraction contaminants like nitrate, fluoride, and TDS are dominant in the ground water. All 33 districts of Rajasthan are partially or fully affected by higher concentrations of fluoride in ground water.

Ground water pollution

Seventy percent of Jaipur city water distribution through pipes has either high bacterial contamination or high TDS or may have both issues as projected by the India water portal based on the reports from Public Health Engineering Department Rajasthan and National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI). Jaipur district is among other districts where average concentration of fluoride is more than 2 mg/l (Singh et al. 2011). On the other hand, due to low rainfall, concentration of nitrate is high as ground water gets less water for dilution (Saxena & Saxena 2014). A study by Ayyasamya et al. (2009) states that concentration of nitrate in the Rajasthan state reaches a maximum of 1,000 mg/l. Rajput et al. (2019), using GIS techniques, assessed the ground water deterioration of Jaipur city. That study found that geogenic processes are more responsible for the high fluoride concentrations in ground water. Similarly excessive usage of fertilisers and domestic sewage discharge are key factors for high concentration of nitrate in the city.

Inadequate sewage treatment plants

Research by Sharma et al. (2020) found that in Jaipur city only 62% of total sewage is treated through various waste water treatment plants. Only 235 MLD waste water is treated out of a total 378 MLD generation. This is one of the reasons for bacterial contamination of drinking water sources as waste water finds its way to drinking water reservoirs. On the other hand, 36% of the Jaipur city population is served by the underground sewerage system.

Issues of fluorosis

A study done on 477 outpatients at Rajasthan dental college and hospital (Agrawal et al. 2014) at Jaipur revealed that only 10.9% (52) of total patients had no fluorosis. On the other hand, 89.0% (425) of total patients had fluorosis issues: 28.5% of patients (136) had moderate level of fluorosis; 30.6% of patients (146) had mild level of fluorosis symptoms; questionable level of fluorosis was 7.1% (34); and very mild level of fluorosis was 11.3% (54). Almost 58% (275) were using government supplied water as main source of drinking water and 42% (202) were relying on ground water. The severity of fluorosis is increasing at an alarming rate and the impact on school-going children is immeasurable.

High nitrate concentration

In 2021, PHED Rajasthan chemical team collected 184 samples of water from 15 places in Jaipur (Bhaskar.com 2021). In some cases nitrate concentration was around 125 ppm against 45 ppm as prescribed by the Central Pollution Control Board. To overcome the water shortage PHED mixed the tube well water with Bisalpur dam water supply in water tankers and in clean water reservoirs (CWR) for a population of 250,000.

Data collection: water quality parameter

Extensive data were collected for parameters related to water quality of Jaipur. These data were collected at Rajasthan state ground water department where the scientists used to collect it manually at each of the wells. Some of the data used was not primary data, i.e. it has not been collected first hand and is based on availability of data from secondary sources. Further density of data collection points for ground water quality is not optimal. A GIS database was prepared and GIS-based interpolation and zonal statistical tools were used to calculate average values at each of the wards.

In this research the focus was on fluoride, nitrate and total dissolved solids due to the deteriorating impacts on human health and their predominance in Jaipur region. The Government of India's Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) permissible limit for fluoride is prescribed as 1.5 mg/l; this is 45 mg/l for nitrate and 500 mg/l for TDS. For this study data from 2015 to 2018 and 2021 was collected and analysed. Data for 2019 and 2020 was not available due to Covid restrictions and were not collected manually by the scientists at CGWB. For our analysis purpose we took 2015 and 2018 data. These data are shown in Tables 25.

Table 2

Water quality parameters (F−, and TDS), 2015 data

LocationLatitudeLongitudeF (mg/L)(mg/L)TDS (mg/L)
Harmara 27.01 75.77 0.4 22.94 564 
Amer 26.99 75.86 0.46 9.92 896 
Kukas 27.03 75.89 0.5 76.88 465 
Ravinramanch 26.91 75.82 0.6 182.28 1,076 
Galtagi 26.92 75.86 0.9 4.96 164 
Kalwar 26.96 75.68 1.3 6.82 554 
Niwaroo 26.97 75.69 1.3 6.82 331 
A. Cantt. Pz 26.98 75.71 0.4 9.92 221 
Jhotwara 26.95 75.75 0.4 3.1 170 
Sirsi Pz 26.91 75.68 1.9 19.22 432 
Niwaroo 26.97 75.71 0.8 13.02 331 
Kanakpura 26.92 75.72 1.9 19.84 313 
Vidhyadhar nagar 26.97 75.78 0.6 63.86 440 
Govt. Hostel 26.92 75.80 0.4 151.9 779 
Goner 26.78 75.91 0.9 27.9 330 
Heerapura 26.87 75.74 2.3 107.26 1,479 
Khori 26.86 75.91 0.6 73.78 666 
Mahel 26.81 75.86 1.9 40.92 1,144 
GWD Campus Pz 26.87 75.82 0.6 153.76 595 
O T S 26.87 75.81 2.3 21.7 335 
Bilwa 26.76 75.85 0.9 40.3 899 
Muhana 26.79 75.73 14.88 740 
Nevta 26.80 75.68 1.3 14.26 685 
Sanganer 26.82 75.78 0.3 14.26 265 
Dahmi kalan Pz 26.84 75.57 0.9 3.1 391 
Bhankrota 26.87 75.70 0.3 66.96 524 
LocationLatitudeLongitudeF (mg/L)(mg/L)TDS (mg/L)
Harmara 27.01 75.77 0.4 22.94 564 
Amer 26.99 75.86 0.46 9.92 896 
Kukas 27.03 75.89 0.5 76.88 465 
Ravinramanch 26.91 75.82 0.6 182.28 1,076 
Galtagi 26.92 75.86 0.9 4.96 164 
Kalwar 26.96 75.68 1.3 6.82 554 
Niwaroo 26.97 75.69 1.3 6.82 331 
A. Cantt. Pz 26.98 75.71 0.4 9.92 221 
Jhotwara 26.95 75.75 0.4 3.1 170 
Sirsi Pz 26.91 75.68 1.9 19.22 432 
Niwaroo 26.97 75.71 0.8 13.02 331 
Kanakpura 26.92 75.72 1.9 19.84 313 
Vidhyadhar nagar 26.97 75.78 0.6 63.86 440 
Govt. Hostel 26.92 75.80 0.4 151.9 779 
Goner 26.78 75.91 0.9 27.9 330 
Heerapura 26.87 75.74 2.3 107.26 1,479 
Khori 26.86 75.91 0.6 73.78 666 
Mahel 26.81 75.86 1.9 40.92 1,144 
GWD Campus Pz 26.87 75.82 0.6 153.76 595 
O T S 26.87 75.81 2.3 21.7 335 
Bilwa 26.76 75.85 0.9 40.3 899 
Muhana 26.79 75.73 14.88 740 
Nevta 26.80 75.68 1.3 14.26 685 
Sanganer 26.82 75.78 0.3 14.26 265 
Dahmi kalan Pz 26.84 75.57 0.9 3.1 391 
Bhankrota 26.87 75.70 0.3 66.96 524 

Bold values indicate more than permissible limit.

Table 3

Water quality parameters (F, and TDS), 2018 data

LocationLatitudeLongitudeFTDS
Harmara 27.01 75.77 0.58 11.78 1,098 
Amer 26.99 75.86 1.02 104.78 1,209 
Kukas 27.03 75.89 0.9 57.04 1,153 
Ravinramanch 26.91 75.82 0.04 187.24 1,855 
Galtagi 26.92 75.86 1.5 27.9 340 
A. Cantt. Pz 26.98 75.71 0.8 96.72 821 
Jhotwara 26.95 75.75 1.84 19.22 716 
Sirsi Pz 26.91 75.68 1.48 19.84 670 
Niwaroo 26.97 75.71 2.36 91.76 782 
Kanakpura 26.92 75.72 2.04 81.84 727 
Goner 26.78 75.91 4.2 70.06 1,835 
Heerapura 26.87 75.74 2.7 27.9 569 
Khori 26.86 75.91 5.56 70.06 1,555 
Durgapura 26.85 75.79 0.64 14.88 341 
Mansarovar 26.85 75.76 0.84 68.82 565 
Sanganer 26.82 75.78 0.54 19.22 360 
Bhankrota 26.87 75.70 1.16 13.02 540 
LocationLatitudeLongitudeFTDS
Harmara 27.01 75.77 0.58 11.78 1,098 
Amer 26.99 75.86 1.02 104.78 1,209 
Kukas 27.03 75.89 0.9 57.04 1,153 
Ravinramanch 26.91 75.82 0.04 187.24 1,855 
Galtagi 26.92 75.86 1.5 27.9 340 
A. Cantt. Pz 26.98 75.71 0.8 96.72 821 
Jhotwara 26.95 75.75 1.84 19.22 716 
Sirsi Pz 26.91 75.68 1.48 19.84 670 
Niwaroo 26.97 75.71 2.36 91.76 782 
Kanakpura 26.92 75.72 2.04 81.84 727 
Goner 26.78 75.91 4.2 70.06 1,835 
Heerapura 26.87 75.74 2.7 27.9 569 
Khori 26.86 75.91 5.56 70.06 1,555 
Durgapura 26.85 75.79 0.64 14.88 341 
Mansarovar 26.85 75.76 0.84 68.82 565 
Sanganer 26.82 75.78 0.54 19.22 360 
Bhankrota 26.87 75.70 1.16 13.02 540 
Table 4

Ward-wise distribution of water quality parameters (F, and TDS)

Zone nameWard NoF 15F 16F 17F 18 15 16 17 18TDS 15TDS 16TDS 17TDS18
Vidyadhar Nagar 0.7 1.1 0.6 0.7 40.3 26 59.7 57.0 426.8 730.7 458.8 701.5 
Vidyadhar Nagar 0.7 0.9 0.6 0.8 40.3 26.0 59.7 57.1 426.7 732.4 392.7 700.3 
Vidyadhar Nagar 0.6 1.0 0.5 0.5 40.0 37.5 59.5 55.8 423.5 730.7 580.0 694.2 
Vidyadhar Nagar 0.7 0.7 0.6 0.8 40.3 30.6 59.7 57.1 426.7 741.7 416.8 673.9 
Vidyadhar Nagar 0.7 0.6 0.6 1.0 40.7 26.4 57.5 54.2 410.3 708.8 362.0 661.7 
Vidyadhar Nagar 0.8 0.7 0.7 1.3 47.3 21.0 54.6 51.6 468.6 657.2 312.9 640.2 
Vidyadhar Nagar 0.7 0.4 0.7 1.3 46.7 24.7 53.5 50.2 452.3 629.3 346.5 612.6 
Vidyadhar Nagar 0.7 0.6 0.6 0.8 41.6 31.4 55.2 51.5 400.4 676.7 434.1 634.0 
Vidyadhar Nagar 0.6 0.9 0.5 0.3 40.4 41.1 58.3 55.1 424.4 736.7 593.0 661.4 
Vidyadhar Nagar 10 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.5 43.6 37.3 55.7 50.9 421.4 693.5 526.6 620.0 
Zone nameWard NoF 15F 16F 17F 18 15 16 17 18TDS 15TDS 16TDS 17TDS18
Vidyadhar Nagar 0.7 1.1 0.6 0.7 40.3 26 59.7 57.0 426.8 730.7 458.8 701.5 
Vidyadhar Nagar 0.7 0.9 0.6 0.8 40.3 26.0 59.7 57.1 426.7 732.4 392.7 700.3 
Vidyadhar Nagar 0.6 1.0 0.5 0.5 40.0 37.5 59.5 55.8 423.5 730.7 580.0 694.2 
Vidyadhar Nagar 0.7 0.7 0.6 0.8 40.3 30.6 59.7 57.1 426.7 741.7 416.8 673.9 
Vidyadhar Nagar 0.7 0.6 0.6 1.0 40.7 26.4 57.5 54.2 410.3 708.8 362.0 661.7 
Vidyadhar Nagar 0.8 0.7 0.7 1.3 47.3 21.0 54.6 51.6 468.6 657.2 312.9 640.2 
Vidyadhar Nagar 0.7 0.4 0.7 1.3 46.7 24.7 53.5 50.2 452.3 629.3 346.5 612.6 
Vidyadhar Nagar 0.7 0.6 0.6 0.8 41.6 31.4 55.2 51.5 400.4 676.7 434.1 634.0 
Vidyadhar Nagar 0.6 0.9 0.5 0.3 40.4 41.1 58.3 55.1 424.4 736.7 593.0 661.4 
Vidyadhar Nagar 10 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.5 43.6 37.3 55.7 50.9 421.4 693.5 526.6 620.0 
Table 5

Water quality parameters (F, and TDS) of different areas of Jaipur city

Rural areaFluoride (mg/l)TDS (mg/l)Nitrate (mg/l)
Dehmi Kalan 0.56 1,267.66 56.93 
Dehmi khurd 0.69 364.00 27.29 
Sanjhariya 0.37 580.00 16.792 
Awaniya 0.25 384.65 50.898 
Harchandpura @ deoliya 1.01 395.512 27.696 
Sitapura bas sanjhariya 0.45 288.46 17.734 
Kodar 0.71 423.076 57.162 
Hardhyanpura 0.45 378.205 26.126 
Balmukundpura @ nada 1.00 310.256 18.048 
Kumawat ki dhani 0.39 392.564 56.968 
Rampurawas deoliya 0.78 391.025 26.67 
Prithvisinghpura @ naiwala 0.50 294.87 16.806 
Chimanpura 0.81 372.00 25.86 
Bhaosinghpura 0.15 537.00 28.132 
Ramsinghpura 0.16 825.00 31.94 
Bindayika 0.30 663.00 47.566 
Laxmipura 0.35 490.50 30.142 
Himatpura 0.32 487.50 54.764 
Mehlan 0.30 1,110.00 17.75 
Laxminarayan pura 0.46 888.50 38.65 
Girdharpura 0.33 4,510.00 48.71 
Keshrisinghpura 0.42 572.00 56.256 
Gopalpura 0.42 609.00 14.26 
Begas 1.18 340.99 52.75 
RIICO ind. area 1.07 1,820.00 18.534 
Thikariya 0.68 580.447 58.986 
Achanchukya 0.56 391.025 57.144 
Chorasya ki dhani 0.81 1,858.974 19.236 
Sarangpura 0.24 576.99 58.516 
Dhami 0.95 1,903.842 18.234 
Hasampura 0.97 1,955.128 19.76 
Ramchandpura 0.31 634.615 59.516 
Mansinghpura 0.38 585.50 24.50 
Sitapura 0.63 1,493.00 56.056 
Neemera 0.35 780.50 47.112 
Bagru 0.60 1002.00 58.196 
Rural areaFluoride (mg/l)TDS (mg/l)Nitrate (mg/l)
Dehmi Kalan 0.56 1,267.66 56.93 
Dehmi khurd 0.69 364.00 27.29 
Sanjhariya 0.37 580.00 16.792 
Awaniya 0.25 384.65 50.898 
Harchandpura @ deoliya 1.01 395.512 27.696 
Sitapura bas sanjhariya 0.45 288.46 17.734 
Kodar 0.71 423.076 57.162 
Hardhyanpura 0.45 378.205 26.126 
Balmukundpura @ nada 1.00 310.256 18.048 
Kumawat ki dhani 0.39 392.564 56.968 
Rampurawas deoliya 0.78 391.025 26.67 
Prithvisinghpura @ naiwala 0.50 294.87 16.806 
Chimanpura 0.81 372.00 25.86 
Bhaosinghpura 0.15 537.00 28.132 
Ramsinghpura 0.16 825.00 31.94 
Bindayika 0.30 663.00 47.566 
Laxmipura 0.35 490.50 30.142 
Himatpura 0.32 487.50 54.764 
Mehlan 0.30 1,110.00 17.75 
Laxminarayan pura 0.46 888.50 38.65 
Girdharpura 0.33 4,510.00 48.71 
Keshrisinghpura 0.42 572.00 56.256 
Gopalpura 0.42 609.00 14.26 
Begas 1.18 340.99 52.75 
RIICO ind. area 1.07 1,820.00 18.534 
Thikariya 0.68 580.447 58.986 
Achanchukya 0.56 391.025 57.144 
Chorasya ki dhani 0.81 1,858.974 19.236 
Sarangpura 0.24 576.99 58.516 
Dhami 0.95 1,903.842 18.234 
Hasampura 0.97 1,955.128 19.76 
Ramchandpura 0.31 634.615 59.516 
Mansinghpura 0.38 585.50 24.50 
Sitapura 0.63 1,493.00 56.056 
Neemera 0.35 780.50 47.112 
Bagru 0.60 1002.00 58.196 

The most severe sufferers from ground water quality are the urban poor who migrate to large cities for employment, education and so on, and are bound to live on the periphery or outskirts of the city area which are served water through costly individual water tankers from unsafe sources.

In this study three key parameters, fluoride, nitrate and TDS, pertaining to Jaipur city water quality were taken into consideration. Through the use of GIS software the concentration of all three water quality parameters was determined through spatial distribution. Through this step the concentration of fluoride, nitrate and TDS in all 91 wards for the years 2015, 2016, 2017 and 2018 was found. Based on these values the concentration of each pollutant is further shown through GIS maps in 91 wards. For the purpose of this study data for 2015 and 2018 were used. Water quality parameters of different areas of Jaipur city for 2021 were also studied.

Fluoride (F)

Figure 2 shows fluoride concentration in all 91 wards for the year 2015. This was done through interpolation and spatial distribution. For the year 2015 all the wards of Jaipur city were well below the permissible limit of 1.5 mg/l: a healthy sign in terms of water quality pertaining to fluoride concentration.
Figure 2

GIS interpolated F value (2015).

Figure 2

GIS interpolated F value (2015).

Close modal
With a similar GIS process the fluoride concentration in 2018 was higher in many zones. These included Sanganer, Hawa Mahal east area, Civil Lines area and Mansarovar area. All these areas are densely populated. This is shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3

GIS interpolated F value (2018).

Figure 3

GIS interpolated F value (2018).

Close modal
Figure 4 shows fluoride concentration at various locations in Jaipur city for the year 2015. Higher concentrations of fluoride ingested for longer durations can cause skeletal problems. If ingested for a moderate duration this can lead to dental fluorosis. The figure shows higher concentrations in the Jaipur centre areas which are densely populated. The fluoride concentration reached an alarming rate in two areas where the concentration was three to four times the permissible limit of 1.5 mg/l, shown in Figure 4 for the year 2018. For a few of the areas the values were not available. On the other hand 10 areas showed higher concentrations than the permissible limit.
Figure 4

Fluoride concentration at various locations in Jaipur city for the years 2015 and 2018.

Figure 4

Fluoride concentration at various locations in Jaipur city for the years 2015 and 2018.

Close modal
Figure 5 displays the fluoride concentration in different parts of Jaipur for the year 2021. This was done in addition to data collected for 2015 to 2018. If more fluoride is consumed over a longer period of time, many health issues may result. Dental fluorosis may result from moderate-term consumption. The densely inhabited areas of Jaipur's centre are where the figure displays a higher concentration.
Figure 5

Fluoride concentration at various locations in Jaipur city for the year 2021.

Figure 5

Fluoride concentration at various locations in Jaipur city for the year 2021.

Close modal

Nitrate ()

Higher nitrate concentration is persisting in almost all the districts of Rajasthan. With the help of GIS spatial distribution interpolation as shown in Figure 6, for the year 2015 almost all eight zones of Jaipur are severely affected by nitrate except for a few wards in Vidyadhar Nagar. Not at all a healthy sign.
Figure 6

Nitrate concentration at various locations in Jaipur city for the years 2015 and 2018.

Figure 6

Nitrate concentration at various locations in Jaipur city for the years 2015 and 2018.

Close modal
Figure 7 shows concentration of nitrate in Jaipur region in the year 2015. Seven areas show higher concentration of nitrate. A higher concentration of poses serious health issues mainly to infants. This has also been reported in many areas in Jaipur. A study done by Agrawal (2009) predicted that in the Dudu area in Jaipur the range of nitrate was 10–159 mg/l and almost 40% of samples showed a higher concentration of nitrate. Comparing to other years, for the year 2018 the concentration of nitrate as shown in Figure 8 was slightly lower, though in dense areas it was almost four times the permissible limit. Similarly, 10 areas have shown higher concentration than the permissible limit of 45 mg/l which is not a good healthy sign.
Figure 7

GIS interpolated value, 2015.

Figure 7

GIS interpolated value, 2015.

Close modal
Figure 8

GIS interpolated value, 2018.

Figure 8

GIS interpolated value, 2018.

Close modal

Comparing to previous years, except in Vidyadhar Nagar zone, the remaining seven zones have a better nitrate concentration in Jaipur city. This may be attributed to dilution of ground water aquifers due to rainfall. This is shown in Figure 8. Fortunately, the densely populated areas of Sanganer and Mansarovar all have better quality.

When compared to previous years, the nitrate concentration for the year 2021, as shown in Figure 9, was somewhat lower, but it was about four times higher in crowded regions. Similar to this, several locations have revealed concentrations over the allowable limit of 45 mg/l, which is not really a good indicator for health.
Figure 9

value of water samples in different villages of Jaipur, 2021.

Figure 9

value of water samples in different villages of Jaipur, 2021.

Close modal

Total dissolved solids

Figure 10 shows the concentration of TDS in all 91 wards and 8 zones of Jaipur city for the year 2015. Except 2/3 wards in Sanganer zone all the wards of Jaipur have a higher TDS and 1/2 wards of Civil Lines area have concentration more than 750 mg/l. The year 2018 in contrast to the other years 2016 and 2017 shows better TDS concentration in almost all the zones and wards of Jaipur city, except the northern zones of city, that is Vidyadhar Nagar and parts of Amer. This is shown in Figure 11, and a better year in terms of TDS quality in Jaipur city.
Figure 10

GIS interpolated TDS value, 2015.

Figure 10

GIS interpolated TDS value, 2015.

Close modal
Figure 11

GIS interpolated TDS value, 2018.

Figure 11

GIS interpolated TDS value, 2018.

Close modal
For the year 2015 the majority of the areas in Jaipur city witnessed high TDS above 500 mg/l. Though a higher TDS does not indicate a serious health hazard, water with a concentration above 1,500/2,000 mg/l will not be acceptable by a filtration unit. Specific ions like fluoride, nitrate, and arsenic do possess serious health issues if concentration is higher than the permissible limits. Comparing to other years, for the year 2018 the TDS concentration as shown in Figure 12 in a few areas was more than 1,500 mg/l. On the other hand 15 areas showed higher concentration than the permissible limit of 500 mg/l.
Figure 12

TDS concentration at various locations in Jaipur city for the years 2015 and 2018.

Figure 12

TDS concentration at various locations in Jaipur city for the years 2015 and 2018.

Close modal
The TDS concentration for the year 2021, as shown in Figure 13, was slightly lower than in previous years, due to more rainfall and recharging of ground water, but even so, it was over 1,500 mg/l in a small number of locations. On the other hand, 22 locations showed concentrations that were higher than the allowed limit of 500 mg/l.
Figure 13

TDS concentration at various locations in Jaipur city for the year 2021.

Figure 13

TDS concentration at various locations in Jaipur city for the year 2021.

Close modal

The most severe sufferers from ground water quality are the urban poor. They migrate to large cities for employment and education, and so on, and are bound to live on the periphery of the city. They are served water through costly individual water tankers from unsafe sources. Jaipur city has annual average rainfall of 504 mm, which is less than half of India's annual average rainfall of 1,100 mm. Climate change impact, ecological imbalance, erratic rain patterns and reduction in rainfall combined with rapid urbanization, steep increase in population and extension of concrete floors is giving much less space for ground water recharge. Without more dilution of ground water the issues of fluoride, nitrate and TDS is increasing at a very high rate. Effective rain water harvesting structures and developing green zones are two of the ways to mitigate the issue. An effective environmental management plan is urgently needed.

This study demonstrated that it is possible to compare the observed water quality parameters value favourably with the estimated water quality parameters value. As a result, the proposed model can be utilized to reasonably anticipate and manage the water quality. In order to prevent additional pollution of this major area of Jaipur city, the study advises the necessity of ongoing water monitoring in order to identify the causes of pollution.

The authors acknowledge the kind support from various regulatory agencies in Jaipur city including Central Ground Water Board (CGWB), PHED, JDA, JMC, MNIT (Malviya National Institute of Technology), and MUJ (Manipal University Jaipur). The authors would also like to acknowledge the support of Mr Kushal Mahale, research scholar from Manipal University Jaipur with a special thanks to Dr Rohit Goyal, Professor of Civil Engineering, Malviya National Institute of Technology, Jaipur.

All relevant data are included in the paper or its Supplementary Information.

The authors declare there is no conflict.

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