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A multitude of studies exist on solar desalination systems, particularly focusing on innovative designs for covers and absorber materials to enhance freshwater production. Given the larger exposure area for evaporation and condensation, hemispherical solar stills have become widely utilized. This study primarily centers on improving freshwater yield by incorporating reflective mirrors and absorber materials made of zinc and copper into the hemispherical solar still. The thermal performance is evaluated and compared with a hemispherical solar still lacking these modifications. In addition, sand grains are introduced to the absorber as a means of energy storage. Experimental results demonstrate that the concurrent use of copper as a basin material with reflective mirrors and sand grains as energy storage significantly enhances freshwater production from the hemispherical solar still. The findings reveal an improvement in freshwater yield by up to 156% compared to a conventional hemispherical still. The conventional and modified hemispherical solar stills, with the combined effects of energy storage through sand grains, absorber plate, and reflective mirrors, exhibit a maximum accumulated yield of approximately 4.65 and 11.9 L/m2, respectively. The present findings affirm the importance of the proposed modifications to the hemispherical solar still.

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  • Experiments are conducted in hemispherical solar still (HSS) using different basin materials and energy storage.

  • Sand grains are used for thermal storage.

  • The internal reflective mirrors increased the heating of the saline water inside the basin.

  • Results showed an improvement in fresh water yield of up to 156% as compared to conventional HSS.

  • Highest thermal performance was achieved using copper basin and sand granules along with reflective mirrors.

absorber material, drinking water, energy storage, hemispherical cover, reflective mirrors, renewable energy
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SS

Solar Still

THSS

Traditional hemispherical solar still

THSS-IRM

Traditional hemispherical solar still with internal reflective mirrors

THSS-IRMZ

Traditional hemispherical solar still with internal reflective mirrors and basin metal of zinc

THSS-IRMC

Traditional hemispherical solar still with internal reflective mirrors and basin metal of copper

THSS-IRMSG

Traditional hemispherical solar still with internal reflective mirrors and sand grains

THSS-IRMZSG

Traditional hemispherical solar still with internal reflective mirrors and basin metal of zinc and sand grains

THSS-IRMCSG

Traditional hemispherical solar still with internal reflective mirrors and basin metal of copper and sand grains

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Promising energy solutions have the potential to address forthcoming challenges by harnessing alternative and sustainable energy sources. Solar energy is a viable choice among the various renewable options available due to its widespread availability (Gajbhiye et al. 2023a; Shelare et al. 2023a). Drinking water is essential for maintaining good health and well-being. Our bodies rely on water to perform vital functions such as digestion, regulating body temperature, lubricating joints, and maintaining overall hydration. Waterborne infections, hunger, and other health problems may all be caused by a lack of access to clean drinking water, contributing to the problem (Bagheri et al. 2021). The United Nations estimates that around 2.2 billion people worldwide do not have access to drinking water services that are maintained securely. This implies that a sizeable percentage of the population of the globe is compelled to depend on unclean water sources, such as rivers, lakes, or wells that have been poisoned, putting their health in jeopardy as a result. The issue of water scarcity is particularly prevalent in regions facing arid climates, rapid population growth, and insufficient water infrastructure (Bagheri et al. 2019; Suraparaju et al. 2021). The burden of water scarcity disproportionately affects women and girls. In many regions, women and girls are responsible for collecting water, often walking long distances and spending hours each day fetching water from distant sources.

Present statistics are listed as follows:

  • 1.

    According to the UNICEF, approximately one in four primary schools worldwide lacks access to clean drinking water.

  • 2.

    The WHO estimates that by 2025, half of the world's population will live in water-stressed areas, further exacerbating the global water crisis.

  • 3.

    In sub-Saharan Africa, nearly 400 million people lack access to safe drinking water.

  • 4.

    The United Nations predicts that global water demand will exceed supply by 40% in 2030, further intensifying the need for sustainable water management strategies.

Even though food, electricity, and water are essential human necessities, there is a severe global lack of these materials (Tiwari & Sahota 2017; Parsa et al. 2023). Also, the food–energy–water nexus is a critical component of any sustainability plan for any nation. Water scarcity is a pressing global issue that affects millions of people. As freshwater resources become increasingly scarce, finding sustainable solutions to meet the growing demand for clean water is crucial (Shelare et al. 2023b). Solar desalination is a cutting-edge technology that leverages the sun's abundant energy to convert saltwater into fresh, potable water (Alhuyi Nazari et al. 2021). Solar desalination is a process that harnesses solar power to separate freshwater from saltwater, ensuring a sustainable supply of potable water. This technology utilizes solar heat through solar stills (SSs), solar distillation, and solar-powered reverse osmosis. Solar-powered reverse osmosis has gained prominence in recent years for large-scale desalination projects. This method employs solar energy to power reverse osmosis, applying high pressure to saltwater and forcing it through a semi-permeable membrane to remove salt and impurities. Solar-powered reverse osmosis offers a sustainable and cost-effective solution for addressing water scarcity in coastal areas. The key benefits of solar desalination are as follows: (1) It is renewable and sustainable: solar desalination relies on the abundant and renewable energy of the sun, reducing dependence on fossil fuels and minimizing environmental impact; (2) It is cost-efficient: while initial setup costs may be higher, solar desalination proves to be cost-efficient in the long run due to the absence of ongoing fuel expenses and the potential for decentralized systems; (3) Independence and self-sufficiency: solar desalination empowers communities to achieve water self-sufficiency, reducing reliance on external water sources (Suraparaju & Natarajan 2021, 2022). This independence contributes to the resilience and sustainability of water-scarce regions (Natarajan et al. 2022).

Researchers have put forth several solutions to tackle the population's challenges. These encompass integrating solar distillation units with greenhouses and implementing solar-powered multi-generation units (Essa et al. 2020a). Solar thermal desalination methods such as the multi-stage flash technique (Harandi et al. 2017), humidification and dehumidification (HDH) (Sharshir et al. 2016; Abdullah et al. 2020a; Essa et al. 2020b), multi effect boiling (MEB) (Darwish et al. 2006), and SSs (Kabeel et al. 2014a, 2014b) are some of the methods that help solve the water shortage problem (Elsheikh et al. 2018). Among these methods, the SS stands out as one of the simplest forms of solar desalination. It comprises a transparent surface that permits sunlight penetration, heating the salty water and inducing evaporation. The resulting water vapor condenses on a more excellent surface, producing fresh water. SSs are relatively straightforward to construct and operate, making them well-suited for small-scale applications. Scaling up solar desalination and solar distillation involves collecting saltwater in a shallow basin or pond, covering it with a transparent material, and allowing the sun's rays to heat the water. As the water evaporates, it condenses on the cover and drips into a collection system as freshwater. Solar distillation is an efficient method for producing clean water, particularly in arid regions where traditional water sources are scarce.

Solar distillers can indeed be fabricated using low-cost materials. However, from various literature studies, it has been identified as one of the traditional thermal desalination processes with relatively low productivity compared to other desalination methods (Essa et al. 2020a, 2020c). To enhance the freshwater production and thermal performance of SSs, researchers have proposed various modifications, adopting different geometries and designs. These modifications include innovative absorber designs such as stepped (Essa et al. 2020d), disc (Essa et al. 2020e), tubular (Elashmawy 2020; Kabeel et al. 2020), drum (Abdullah et al. 2019a), photovoltaic/thermal (PV/T) active distiller (Pounraj et al. 2018; Hedayati-Mehdiabadi et al. 2020), finned (Omara et al. 2011), trays (Abdullah et al. 2020b, 2020c), inclined (Kumar et al. 2017), wick (Omara et al. 2015; Abdullah et al. 2018, 2019b), corrugated (Omara et al. 2015, 2016), distiller with condenser (Kabeel et al. 2017), spherical (Modi et al. 2020), double-effect (Abderachid & Abdenacer 2013; Rajaseenivasan et al. 2013; Rajaseenivasan & Kalidasa Murugavel 2013), multi-stage (El-Sebaii 2005), distiller with nanofluids (Shanmugan et al. 2020), distiller with heat exchanger (Yadav 1991), inverted still (Suneja & Tiwari 1999), and pyramid distillers (Nayi & Modi 2018; Modi & Nayi 2020). Furthermore, the performance of these distillers was investigated when employing various enhancements such as nanomaterials (Kabeel et al. 2017; Thamizharasu et al. 2020), floating aluminum sheet (Valsaraj 2002), desiccant (Modi & Shukla 2018), glass cooling (Sharshir et al. 2017a), rocks (Abdallah et al. 2009), wicks (Omara et al. 2015), phase change material (PCM) (Sharshir et al. 2017b), fins (Omara et al. 2011), sun-tracker (Abdallah & Badran 2008), multi-effect basins (Al-Hinai et al. 2002), reflectors (Omara et al. 2016), and vapor extraction (Scrivani & Bardi 2008; Elashmawy & Alshammari 2020; Essa et al. 2020f). Similarly, there are studies related to using nanofluids in solar distillers (Shanmugan et al. 2020; Gajbhiye et al. 2022, 2023b). These diverse modifications aim to optimize SSs' thermal efficiency and freshwater output through innovative design considerations and the integration of advanced materials and technologies.

The impact of different metal trays as an absorber plate on the hemispherical SS (HSS) (iron, copper, and zinc) was experimentally studied by Attia et al. (2021a) to enhance thermal performance. The study concluded that using copper plates as absorber plates in the HSS produced a maximum daily freshwater yield of 7.35 L/m2. In contrast, the conventional HSS produced a maximum output of 4.8 L/m2. Similarly, Attia et al. (2021b) employed phosphate pellets with two different concentrations, namely, 10 and 20 g/L, as an energy storage material and experimentally analyzed the thermal performance. Results indicated that using a higher concentration of phosphate pellets on the absorber improved the yield of freshwater production to 47.9%, while using 10 g/L resulted in a 33.7% improvement. In addition to phosphate pellets, Attia et al. (2021c) used sand grains at varying concentrations ranging from 5 to 70 g/L as a thermal energy storage medium to enhance the thermal performance of the HSS. The findings showed that including sand particles at a concentration of 30 g/L resulted in a peak freshwater yield of 7.27 L/m2. In contrast, the HSS system, without the presence of sand grains, generated a freshwater yield of 4.78 L/m2.

In addition, Khechekhouche et al. (2021) used zinc plates as an energy storage medium with a black metallic coating to augment solar distiller efficiency. It was reported that the solar distiller produced 3.894 kg/m2 using zinc plate as absorber material, whereas the SS using a traditional absorber produced a maximum yield of 2.52 kg/m2. In their study, Essa et al. (2021a) enhanced the thermal performance of the stepped SS by incorporating internal and external reflectors on the side walls of the trays. The findings indicated that the proposed modification significantly improved by approximately 104% in producing fresh water. Moreover, in a related investigation, Omara et al. (2016) experimented on the corrugated SS (CrSS) under outdoor conditions in Kafr El Sheikh, Egypt. The study aimed to enhance the evaporation rate by incorporating the wick material as a layer, along with reflectors, to improve the productivity and thermal performance of the CrSS. The results revealed that the freshwater produced by the CrSS with a corrugated absorber and wick material increased by approximately 145.5% compared to the conventional SS. Furthermore, the study concluded that implementing a corrugated absorber significantly enhanced the daily efficiency of the SS, achieving an impressive efficiency rate of 59%. In comparison, conventional SS exhibited a daily efficiency of 33%.

Therefore, the use of various absorber materials such as copper and zinc within the HSS has not yet been investigated. As a result, the primary aim of this study was to conduct an experimental analysis of the performance of HSS and evaluate the impact of various parameters, including the type of basin materials used (copper and zinc), the presence of internal reflecting mirrors on the absorber's side walls, and the use of sand grains as energy storage material at a concentration of 30 g/L, on the overall performance of the system. The study was conducted in El Oued, Algeria, in August 2020.

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Test-rig fabrication

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The schematic representation of the hemispherical solar basin still is depicted in Figure 1. The system comprises a circular base with a diameter of 38 cm and a height of 4 cm, covered uniformly with black silicone on all surfaces. The base is constructed from wood with a thickness of 2.5 cm. A hemispherical dome cover, possessing a transparency of 88% and a thickness of 3 mm, is employed to gather condensate formed on the inner surface. The condensing cover is crafted from acrylic sheet material and has a diameter of 40 cm. A distillate channel is affixed to the circular basin to collect the fresh water. The fresh water is directed into a calibrated flask through a flexible hose connected to the distillate channel. The distillate collected is recorded at hourly intervals. Figure 1 illustrates the fundamental mechanism of water evaporation and the collection of fresh water in the system.
Figure 1
Model of the hemispherical solar distiller.
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Model of the hemispherical solar distiller.

Figure 1
Model of the hemispherical solar distiller.
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Model of the hemispherical solar distiller.

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To examine the effect of utilizing copper and zinc as basin metal liners, which possess excellent thermal energy storage properties, we employed plates with the characteristics outlined in Table 1.

Table 1

Characteristics of investigated metals (copper and zinc)

Item (unit)CopperZinc
Density (g/cm3) 8.96 7.14 
Melting point (K) 1,356.6 693 
Boiling point (K) 2,840 1,180 
Thermal conductivity (W/(mK)) 401 116 
Item (unit)CopperZinc
Density (g/cm3) 8.96 7.14 
Melting point (K) 1,356.6 693 
Boiling point (K) 2,840 1,180 
Thermal conductivity (W/(mK)) 401 116 
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Table 2 contains the results of the X-ray fluorescence (XRF) investigation performed on the sand sample obtained from El Oued. The results showed that the sand primarily consists of silica (silicon oxide) with a concentration of 97.63%, notably higher than the other oxides found in the sand, and the remaining oxides were identified at relatively lower concentrations.

Table 2

XRF chemical analysis of the sand particles from El Oued region

Oxide element concentrations (%)Trace element concentrations (ppm)
SiO2 97.63 Cl 425 
MgO 0.613 Zn 44.0 
CaO 0.564 Ba 21.0 
Na2O 0.542 Sr 6.00 
Al2O3 0.327 Nb 5.00 
CO2 0.105 Bi 5.00 
K2O 0.0677 Ge 3.00 
Fe2O3 0.042   
SO3 0.037   
P2O5 0.0138   
TiO2 0.0053   
MnO 0.0021   
Oxide element concentrations (%)Trace element concentrations (ppm)
SiO2 97.63 Cl 425 
MgO 0.613 Zn 44.0 
CaO 0.564 Ba 21.0 
Na2O 0.542 Sr 6.00 
Al2O3 0.327 Nb 5.00 
CO2 0.105 Bi 5.00 
K2O 0.0677 Ge 3.00 
Fe2O3 0.042   
SO3 0.037   
P2O5 0.0138   
TiO2 0.0053   
MnO 0.0021   
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The micrograph of El Oued sand is depicted in Figure 2, revealing its characteristic golden yellow color, attributed to its unique chemical composition and granular structure. The image also provides an insight into the size and diameter of the sand grains, which range between 1.5 and 2 mm.
Figure 2
Micrograph of El Oued sand grains.
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Micrograph of El Oued sand grains.

Figure 2
Micrograph of El Oued sand grains.
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Micrograph of El Oued sand grains.

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The experimental setup is illustrated in Figure 3. The tests were conducted over 3 days, specifically on 16–18 August 2020, for 12 h daily (from 07:00 to 19:00) in El Oued, Algeria (06° 47′ E and 33° 30′ N). The inner walls of the hemispherical distiller were coated with mirrors. In addition, black-painted liners of copper and zinc were positioned on the basin bottom to assess their impact on the daily output of the solar distillers. These metal liner plates cover a circular area of 0.1 m2. Three similar HSSs were constructed and utilized for the experiments. Initially, experiments were conducted with the traditional SS, considered the reference distiller, and compared to the SS using internal reflective mirrors (IRMs). In the second set of experiments, the HSS using zinc and copper as absorber materials and IRMs were compared to the SS using IRMs alone. In the final stage, the HSS using sand grains, the HSS using IRMs along with sand grains and zinc absorber, and the HSS using IRMs along with sand grains and copper absorber were analyzed. The errors that occurred during the measurements are listed in Table 3.
Table 3

Standard uncertainties of instruments

Measuring instrumentTypeAccuracyRangeStandard uncertaintyUnit
Thermocouple K-type thermocouple ±0.1 −100 to 500 1.12 °C 
Calibrated flask Glass ±1 0 to 1,500 0.6 mL 
Solar power meter TES1333R ±10 0 to 1,999 3.75 W/m2 
Measuring instrumentTypeAccuracyRangeStandard uncertaintyUnit
Thermocouple K-type thermocouple ±0.1 −100 to 500 1.12 °C 
Calibrated flask Glass ±1 0 to 1,500 0.6 mL 
Solar power meter TES1333R ±10 0 to 1,999 3.75 W/m2 
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Figure 3
Investigated solar distillers.
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Investigated solar distillers.

Figure 3
Investigated solar distillers.
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Investigated solar distillers.

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Error analysis

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The uncertainty in the data was estimated using the method described by Holman (2012). Let WR represent the uncertainty found in a result. In addition, represent the uncertainties found in the independent parameters. The calculation of WR is determined as follows (Holman 2012):
The uncertainties of the utilized devices are detailed in Table 3. The minimum error is calculated as the ratio between its least count and the minimum value of the measured output (Srithar 2003). Since the hourly productivity is a function of the flask water depth (m = f(h)), the total uncertainty of the productivity is determined by
Moreover, the uncertainty in efficiency is

As a result, the error of the daily production is ±1.5%. Furthermore, the error of the SS efficiency is ±3.1%.

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The distiller's thermal efficiency was assessed by
where the daily efficiency of the distiller is given by ηd. Similarly, the amount of fresh water generated from the SS is denoted as ⁠. Moreover, the latent heat (high) and the area (A) of the SS projected to the incoming solar radiation (I(t)) are considered in calculating the daily and instantaneous efficiency of the HSS. The latent heat of vaporization from the SS depends on the temperature of water (Tw), and it is mathematically expressed as (Tiwari & Sahota 2017; Essa et al. 2021b)
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Effect of using IRMs

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The efficiency of the distiller is influenced by parameters such as solar radiation and air temperature. Figure 4 illustrates the temperature variations of various components in the SS, along with the ambient temperature and solar radiation. The maximum solar radiation recorded during the experimentation was 1,010 W/m2 at noon. The figure reveals that using reflective mirrors resulted in an average increase in water temperature of 0–6 °C compared to the traditional HSS (THSS) water temperature. The higher focusing of incoming solar radiation achieved through the reflective mirrors contributed to heating the water inside the basin, resulting in higher water temperatures in the HSS with IRM (THSS-IRM) compared to the traditional HSS. The water temperature was maximal at noon, reaching 68 and 72 °C for THSS and THSS-IRM, respectively. This is attributed to the maximum solar radiation and ambient temperature at noon. In addition, the glass temperature of THSS-IRM was slightly higher than that of THSS by 0–1 °C, peaking at 54 °C at noon, reflecting the increased vapor generation inside THSS-IRM compared to THSS.
Figure 4
Environmental conditions for the test of using IRMs.
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Environmental conditions for the test of using IRMs.

Figure 4
Environmental conditions for the test of using IRMs.
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Environmental conditions for the test of using IRMs.

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Moreover, the productivity of the THSS and THSS with IRM (THSS-IRM) is shown in Figure 5. It is evident that the productivity of the SS follows the solar radiation pattern, increasing or decreasing accordingly. Figure 5 illustrates that the instantaneous yield is maximal at 2 PM, reaching 700 mL/m2/h for THSS and 900 mL/m2/h for THSS-IRM. THSS-IRM demonstrates better productivity than THSS, attributed to the use of IRMs that enhance vaporization in THSS-IRM compared to THSS. The greater the evaporation in the SS, the higher the yield. Using IRMs improves evaporation in THSS-IRM, resulting in a higher instantaneous yield compared to THSS, as shown in Figure 5. Furthermore, the total distillates of THSS and THSS-IRM are calculated to determine the daily yield increase of THSS-IRM over THSS. The cumulative daily yield of THSS-IRM was higher than that of THSS, with distillates of 7,000 mL/m2/day for THSS-IRM and 4,650 mL/m2/day for THSS. Therefore, THSS-IRM augmented the yield by 50.5% over THSS, as explained above.
Figure 5
Hourly productivity of the THSS and THSS-IRM.
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Hourly productivity of the THSS and THSS-IRM.

Figure 5
Hourly productivity of the THSS and THSS-IRM.
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Hourly productivity of the THSS and THSS-IRM.

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Effect of using different basin liner metals of zinc and copper

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Figure 6 shows the irradiance and temperatures of SSs at IRMs and different basin metals (zinc and copper). The highest sun irradiance was at 12:00. Also, Figure 6 reveals that using the reflective mirrors and basin metals increased the water temperature of THSS with IRM and basin metal of zinc (THSS-IRMZ) and copper (THSS-IRMC) more than that of the THSS-IRM by around 0–3 and 0–6 °C, respectively. The elevated water temperature of THSS-IRMZ and THSS-IRMC might be attributed to the enhanced heat transfer properties due to using the basin metals of zinc and copper compared to the conventional basin material of iron. Also, the water temperature was maximum at noon time, and it was found as 72, 76, and 78 °C for the THSS-IRM, THSS-IRMZ, and THSS-IRMC, respectively. This was because the solar radiation and ambient temperature were at their maximum at noon. In addition, Figure 6 shows that the glass temperatures of THSS-IRMZ and THSS-IRMC were almost the same, more than that of THSS by 0–1 °C. Moreover, the glass temperature is maximal at noontime, where it was 52, 53, and 53 °C for the THSS-IRM, THSS-IRMZ, and THSS-IRMC, respectively. The increase in THSS-IRMZ and THSS-IRMC glass temperature was referred to the increased generated vapor compared to THSS-IRM.
Figure 6
Environmental conditions for the test of SSs at IRMs and different basin metals (zinc and copper).
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Environmental conditions for the test of SSs at IRMs and different basin metals (zinc and copper).

Figure 6
Environmental conditions for the test of SSs at IRMs and different basin metals (zinc and copper).
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Environmental conditions for the test of SSs at IRMs and different basin metals (zinc and copper).

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In addition, the hourly and total accumulated productivity of the SSs (THSS-IRM, THSS-IRMZ, and THSS-IRMC) are drawn in Figure 7. The freshwater yield has the exact behavior of the solar radiation obtained in Figure 6. The yield increases gradually from the morning time to noon and begins to decrease after that with reducing solar radiation. The maximum yield of fresh water obtained from the THSS-IRM is found to be 900 mL/m2. Similarly, using zinc and copper as absorbers and IRMs, the maximum water produced from the SS is 1,100 and 1,150 mL/h, respectively. Also, the THSS-IRMC introduced more productivity than either THSS-IRM or THSS-IRMZ. This was due to the improved heat transfer characteristics of the copper basin materials as compared to that of the iron and zinc. This led to enhancing the vaporization of the THSS-IRMC more than the other SSs. So, the THSS-IRMC hourly yield was greater than that of either THSS-IRM or THSS-IRMZ, as illustrated in Figure 7. In addition, using IRMs with copper and zinc basin materials augmented the freshwater yield of the distillers as illustrated in Figure 7. The results obtained that the total distilled water of THSS-IRMC was more than that of either THSS-IRM or THSS-IRMZ. As a result, the accumulated distillate of the THSS-IRMC, THSS-IRMZ, and THSS-IRM was 9,500, 8,550, and 7,000 mL/m2/day, respectively. So, the productivity of THSS-IRMC and THSS-IRMZ was improved by around 35.7% and 22.1% over the THSS-IRM because of the above-explicated causes of productivity enhancement. Moreover, the yield of THSS-IRMC and THSS-IRMZ was improved by around 104.3 and 84% over the THSS, respectively.
Figure 7
Instantaneous and total accumulated yield of the distillers (THSS-IRM, THSS-IRMZ, and THSS-IRMC).
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Instantaneous and total accumulated yield of the distillers (THSS-IRM, THSS-IRMZ, and THSS-IRMC).

Figure 7
Instantaneous and total accumulated yield of the distillers (THSS-IRM, THSS-IRMZ, and THSS-IRMC).
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Instantaneous and total accumulated yield of the distillers (THSS-IRM, THSS-IRMZ, and THSS-IRMC).

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Effect of using sand grains

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To avoid repeating results, let us summarize the data from this section. The experimental results indicate that using reflective mirrors with basin metals of zinc and copper, along with an energy storage medium, increased the water temperature of THSS with IRM and basin metal of zinc and sand grains (THSS-IRMZSG) and basin metal of copper and sand grains (THSS-IRMCSG) by around 0–5 and 0–8 °C, respectively, compared to THSS with IRMs and sand grains (THSS-IRMSG) throughout the day. Using the energy storage medium alone increased the water temperature inside the solar distiller by around 0–3 °C. The water temperature was maximum at noon, reaching 78, 81, and 84 °C for THSS-IRMSG, THSS-IRMZSG, and THSS-IRMCSG, respectively. In addition, the glass temperatures of THSS-IRMZSG and THSS-IRMCSG were almost the same and were higher than that of THSS by 0–1 °C. Moreover, the glass temperature was maximal at noon, reaching 54, 55, and 55 °C for THSS-IRMSG, THSS-IRMZSG, and THSS-IRMCSG, respectively.

Furthermore, the hourly and total accumulated yields of the distillers (THSS-IRMSG, THSS-IRMZSG, and THSS-IRMCSG) are shown in Figure 8. The hourly yield was maximal at 14:00, where it was 1,150, 1,300, and 1,400 mL/m2/h for THSS-IRMSG, THSS-IRMZSG, and THSS-IRMCSG, respectively. Also, the THSS-IRMCSG introduced more productivity than either THSS-IRMSG or THSS-IRMZSG. This was due to the improved heat transfer characteristics of the copper basin materials as compared to that of the iron and zinc. Additionally, the stored energy in the energy storage medium was released during periods when the sun was not available. This enhanced the THSS-IRMCSG's vaporization more than the other SSs. So, the hourly yield of THSS-IRMCSG was superior to that of either THSS-IRMSG or THSS-IRMZSG, as illustrated in Figure 8. In addition, the results obtained that the total fresh water production of THSS-IRMCSG was better than that of either THSS-IRMSG or THSS-IRMZSG. As a result, the accumulated distillate of the THSS-IRMCSG, THSS-IRMZSG, and THSS-IRMSG was 11,900, 10,800, and 9,400 mL/m2/day, respectively. So, the productivity of THSS-IRMC and THSS-IRMZ was improved by around 26.6 and 15% over the THSS-IRMSG. Moreover, the yield of THSS-IRMCSG and THSS-IRMZSG was improved by around 156 and 132.3% over the THSS.
Figure 8
Instantaneous and total accumulated yield of the distillers (THSS-IRMSG, THSS-IRMZSG, and THSS-IRMCSG).
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Instantaneous and total accumulated yield of the distillers (THSS-IRMSG, THSS-IRMZSG, and THSS-IRMCSG).

Figure 8
Instantaneous and total accumulated yield of the distillers (THSS-IRMSG, THSS-IRMZSG, and THSS-IRMCSG).
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Instantaneous and total accumulated yield of the distillers (THSS-IRMSG, THSS-IRMZSG, and THSS-IRMCSG).

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Comparison of present work with published similar works

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Table 4 compares the findings from the current study with those of previously published similar investigations. It is revealed that the total yield of THSS-IRM was increased by 50.5% compared to the THSS. Also, the cumulative yield was increased by 84% when using THSS-IRMZ, by 104.3% when using THSS-IRMC, by 132.3% when using THSS-IRMZSG, and by 156% when using THSS-IRMCSG. Thus, the IRMs, metal sheets, and sand grains significantly augmented the yield of the SS.

Table 4

Comparison between the findings of previously published works and the current study

ReferenceType of SSEnhancement techniquesProductivity (%)
Our results Hemispherical still 

  • - IRMs

 		50.5 

  • - Zinc basin metal and IRMs

 		84 

  • - Copper basin metal and internal mirrors

 		104.3 

  • - Internal mirrors, zinc basin metal, and sand grains

 		132.3 

  • - Internal mirrors, copper basin metal, and sand grains

 		156 
Attia et al. (2021a)  Hemispherical trays 

  • - Tray of iron

 		14.6 
SS 

  • - Tray of zinc

 		31.25 

  • - Tray of copper

 		53.125 
Attia et al. (2021d)  Single slope SS 

  • - Bed phosphate

 		16.8 
Kumar et al. (2008)  ‘V’ type SS 

  • - Mirror

 		11.92 

  • - Mirror and charcoal

 		14.11 
Abdullah et al. (2020c)  Trays SS 

  • - Internal reflectors

 		58.00 

  • - External reflectors

 		75.00 
Chandrika et al. (2021)  Single slope still 

  • - Reflective glass mirror

 		68.57 

  • - Reflective aluminum sheet

 		48.57 
ReferenceType of SSEnhancement techniquesProductivity (%)
Our results Hemispherical still 

  • - IRMs

 		50.5 

  • - Zinc basin metal and IRMs

 		84 

  • - Copper basin metal and internal mirrors

 		104.3 

  • - Internal mirrors, zinc basin metal, and sand grains

 		132.3 

  • - Internal mirrors, copper basin metal, and sand grains

 		156 
Attia et al. (2021a)  Hemispherical trays 

  • - Tray of iron

 		14.6 
SS 

  • - Tray of zinc

 		31.25 

  • - Tray of copper

 		53.125 
Attia et al. (2021d)  Single slope SS 

  • - Bed phosphate

 		16.8 
Kumar et al. (2008)  ‘V’ type SS 

  • - Mirror

 		11.92 

  • - Mirror and charcoal

 		14.11 
Abdullah et al. (2020c)  Trays SS 

  • - Internal reflectors

 		58.00 

  • - External reflectors

 		75.00 
Chandrika et al. (2021)  Single slope still 

  • - Reflective glass mirror

 		68.57 

  • - Reflective aluminum sheet

 		48.57 
View Large

Table 4 shows that the corrugated distiller productivity (Kumar et al. 2008) was minimal (11.92%). Nevertheless, the distiller trays had maximal value (75%) (Abdullah et al. 2020c).

Moreover, using the equations presented in Section 3, the daily efficiency from the THSS-IRMCSG is notably higher and estimated as 48% and augmented by about 41.66%, whereas the daily efficiency of the HSS without any modification is estimated as 28%.

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Daily yield

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Table 5 presents the daily yield of the THSS, THSS-IRM, THSS-IRMZ, THSS-IRMC, THSS-IRMSG, THSS-IRMZSG, and THSS-IRMCSG. The experiments were recorded for 12 on 16–18 August 2020. Then, the maximum daily yield was obtained with the THSS-IRMCSG.

Table 5

Cumulative yield of the SSs under different conditions

DateTHSS (kg/m2)THSS-IRM (kg/m2)THSS-IRMZ (kg/m2)THSS-IRMC (kg/m2)THSS-IRMSG (kg/m2)THSS-IRMZSG (kg/m2)THSS-IRMCSG (kg/m2)
16 August 2020 4.65 7.00 – – – – – 
17 August 2020 – 7.00 8.55 9.50 – – – 
18 August 2020 – – – – 9.40 10.80 11.90 
DateTHSS (kg/m2)THSS-IRM (kg/m2)THSS-IRMZ (kg/m2)THSS-IRMC (kg/m2)THSS-IRMSG (kg/m2)THSS-IRMZSG (kg/m2)THSS-IRMCSG (kg/m2)
16 August 2020 4.65 7.00 – – – – – 
17 August 2020 – 7.00 8.55 9.50 – – – 
18 August 2020 – – – – 9.40 10.80 11.90 
View Large

Economic evaluation

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Table 6 shows the costs of THSS and THSS-IRM. From these data, the daily water produced from THSS is 4.65 kg/m2/day with a daily water production price of 279 DZD, while the daily water produced from THSS-IRM is 7.00 kg/m2/day with a cost of 420 DZD.

Table 6

Fabrication cost of the THSS and THSS-IRM

ParameterTHSSTHSS-IRM
Total cost of manufacturing (DZD) 9,000 9,000 
Cost of internal mirrors – 400 
Maintenance cost (DZD) 50 50 
Total fixed cost (DZD) 9,050 9,450 
Daily palatable water generation (kg/m2/day) 4.65 7.00 
Cost per liter of palatable water produced by the HSS (DZD) 60 60 
Daily palatable water production price (DZD) 279 420 
Payback period (days) 33 23 
ParameterTHSSTHSS-IRM
Total cost of manufacturing (DZD) 9,000 9,000 
Cost of internal mirrors – 400 
Maintenance cost (DZD) 50 50 
Total fixed cost (DZD) 9,050 9,450 
Daily palatable water generation (kg/m2/day) 4.65 7.00 
Cost per liter of palatable water produced by the HSS (DZD) 60 60 
Daily palatable water production price (DZD) 279 420 
Payback period (days) 33 23 

Notes: 1$ = 132.78 DZD; 1€ = 156.03 DZD.

View Large

In addition, Table 7 presents the cost of THSS-IRM, THSS-IRMZ, and THSS-IRMC. From these results, it is clear that the daily water produced from THSS-IRM is 7.00 kg/m2/day with a price of 420 DZD, while the daily water obtained from THSS-IRMZ is 8.55 kg/m2/day with a price equal to 513 DZD. Also, the daily water obtained from THSS-IRMC is 9.50 kg/m2/day, which is a price of 570 DZD.

Table 7

Fabrication cost of the THSS-IRM, THSS-IRMZ and THSS-IRMC

ParameterTHSS-IRMTHSS-IRMZTHSS-IRMC
Total cost of manufacture (DZD) 9,000 9,000 9,000 
The price of basin metal – 600 900 
The price of IRMs 400 400 400 
Cost on maintenance (DZD) 50 50 50 
Total cost (DZD) 9,450 10,050 10,350 
Daily palatable water generation (kg/m2/day) 7.00 8.55 9.50 
Cost per liter of palatable water produced by the HSS (DZD) 60 60 60 
Daily palatable water production price (DZD) 420 513 570 
Payback period (days) 23 20 18 
ParameterTHSS-IRMTHSS-IRMZTHSS-IRMC
Total cost of manufacture (DZD) 9,000 9,000 9,000 
The price of basin metal – 600 900 
The price of IRMs 400 400 400 
Cost on maintenance (DZD) 50 50 50 
Total cost (DZD) 9,450 10,050 10,350 
Daily palatable water generation (kg/m2/day) 7.00 8.55 9.50 
Cost per liter of palatable water produced by the HSS (DZD) 60 60 60 
Daily palatable water production price (DZD) 420 513 570 
Payback period (days) 23 20 18 

Notes: 1$ = 132.78 DZD; 1€ = 156.03 DZD.

View Large

In addition, Table 8 shows the fabrication costs of the THSS-IRMSG, THSS-IRMZSG, and THSS-IRMCSG. From these results, the daily water produced from THSS-IRMSG is 9.40 kg/m2/day with a price of 564 DZD, while the value of the daily water obtained from THSS-IRMZSG is 10.80 kg/m2/day with a price equal to 648 DZD. Moreover, the daily water produced from THSS-IRMCSG is 11.90 kg/m2/day with a price of 155.91 DZD.

Table 8

Fabrication cost of the THSS-IRMSG, THSS-IRMZSG, and THSS-IRMCSG

ParameterTHSS-IRMSGTHSS-IRMZSGTHSS-IRMCSG
Total cost of manufacture (DZD) 9,000 9,000 9,000 
The price of basin metal – 600 900 
The price of sand grains 0 0 0 
The price of IRMs 400 400 400 
Cost on maintenance (DZD) 50 50 50 
Total cost (DZD) 9,450 10,050 10,350 
Daily palatable water generation (kg/m2/day) 9.40 10.80 11.90 
Cost per liter of palatable water produced by the HSS (DZD) 60 60 60 
Daily palatable water production price (DZD) 564 648 714 
Payback period (days) 17 15 14 
ParameterTHSS-IRMSGTHSS-IRMZSGTHSS-IRMCSG
Total cost of manufacture (DZD) 9,000 9,000 9,000 
The price of basin metal – 600 900 
The price of sand grains 0 0 0 
The price of IRMs 400 400 400 
Cost on maintenance (DZD) 50 50 50 
Total cost (DZD) 9,450 10,050 10,350 
Daily palatable water generation (kg/m2/day) 9.40 10.80 11.90 
Cost per liter of palatable water produced by the HSS (DZD) 60 60 60 
Daily palatable water production price (DZD) 564 648 714 
Payback period (days) 17 15 14 

Notes: 1$ = 132.78 DZD; 1€ = 156.03 DZD.

View Large

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This experimental study explores the impact of IRMs, basin metals (zinc and copper), and sand grains on the productivity and efficiency of an HSS. The methodology involves incorporating IRMs onto the inner walls of the HSS, coupled with varying basin liner metals and types of sand grains. The obtained conclusions can be written as follows:

  • 1.

    The distilled water production from the THSS and THSS-IRM was 4.65 and 7.00 kg/m2/day, respectively. Meanwhile, the distilled water production from the THSS-IRMZ and THSS-IRMC was 8.55 and 9.50 kg/m2/day, respectively. In addition, the distillate production from the THSS-IRMSG, THSS-IRMZSG, and THSS-IRMCSG was 9.40, 10.80, and 11.90 kg/m2/day, respectively.

  • 2.

    The integration of IRMs led to a significant 50.6% increase in productivity compared to the THSS. Likewise, incorporating copper and zinc plates as absorber materials, along with reflective mirrors in the HSS, resulted in productivity improvements of approximately 104.3 and 84%, respectively, compared to the unmodified HSS.

  • 3.

    The daily distillate of THSS-IRMSG, THSS-IRMZSG, and THSS-IRMCSG was augmented by 102.15, 132.3, and 156% compared to that of the THSS, respectively.

  • 4.

    The findings also indicated that the highest thermal performance was achieved using a copper metal plate as an absorber in conjunction with sand granules and reflective mirrors on the HSS.

Based on the above conclusions, it can be reported that the reflective mirrors, high thermal conductivity basin metals, and sand grains significantly improved the productivity and efficiency of the solar distillation unit. Therefore, these modifications are recommended for use in such applications.

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All relevant data are available within the article.

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The authors declare there is no conflict.

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