Barriers to people's participation in watershed intervention projects: perspectives of experts and local communities

PPBs

people's participation barriers

WIPs

watershed intervention projects

SCWMPs

soil conservation and watershed management projects

IWM

integrated watershed management

NRWMO

Natural Resources and Watershed Management Organization

Watershed intervention projects (WIPs) are conducted with the primary goal of mitigating flood damage, promoting soil conservation in alignment with ecological balance, and ultimately enhancing the quality of life for watershed residents. The success of such projects depends significantly on the way and extent of people's participation (Bagdi & Kurothe 2014; Davudirad et al. 2021; Guleria et al. 2017; Roba Gamo et al. 2021; Noor et al. 2022; Salehpour Jam & Mosaffaie 2023). Over the past decades, natural resources in Iran have experienced severe degradation (Razzaghi Borkhani et al. 2023; Savari & Khaleghi 2023a, 2024), with an average annual soil erosion and sediment yield of approximately 7 and 15 t ha⁻¹, respectively (Sadeghi & Hazbavi 2022). Additionally, about 90 million hectares of Iran are susceptible to flash floods (Karimi Sangchini et al. 2022). This alarming rate of soil erosion underscores the imperative of implementing soil conservation and watershed management projects (SCWMPs) (Noor et al. 2016). The Natural Resources and Watershed Management Organization (NRWMO), tasked with water and soil conservation in Iran, has established various strategies for integrated watershed management (IWM) over the past decades (Salehpour Jam et al. 2021). Despite these efforts, the participation of the people has often been limited, and nonparticipatory projects have been designed and implemented in many cases (Bagherian et al. 2009; Davudirad et al. 2021; Fatemi et al. 2021; Eslami & Noor 2022).

In this regard, there is a growing consensus among researchers, experts, and the policy community that addressing the current crisis in soil and water resources requires more than just the knowledge of experts and local communities (Simpson & De Loe 2017; Sabzevar et al. 2021; Noor et al. 2022). The natural resources and watershed development programs should meet the needs and expectations of the majority of stakeholders (Salehpour Jam & Mosaffaie 2023; Savari & Khaleghi 2023b). The imperative for people's participation in IWM and sustainable development is widely acknowledged (Buono et al. 2012). Consequently, IWM must transition from expert-driven policy-making to collaborative management involving the participation of all stakeholders in decision-making processes (Roba Gamo et al. 2021). Experience from various countries reveals that government-led activities in soil conservation and watershed management alone are not sufficient. Hence, it becomes essential to formulate a systematic strategic plan that encourages the voluntary participation of the local communities in these projects (Mekuriaw & Amsalu 2022). Consequently, a prerequisite for any executive plan is the identification of both incentives and barriers to people's participation in SCWMPs. Once these barriers are identified, prioritization becomes crucial, ensuring the identification of high-priority people's participation barriers (PPBs).

Incorporating the perspectives of local communities at various stages of WIPs including design, implementation, and maintenance, yields numerous advantages. This inclusive approach enhances the likelihood of achieving sustainability and effectiveness in the implementation of WIPs (Bagherian 2013; Mosaffaie & Salehpour Jam 2021). It also fosters democratic processes, ensuring that all stakeholders have the opportunity to participate freely and equally in decision-making processes (Carr et al. 2012). Furthermore, it enables the utilization of intellectual, executive, and indigenous knowledge potentials throughout different stages of the project, thereby contributing to a more comprehensive and informed approach (Salehpour Jam et al. 2017). Additionally, considering the opinions of local communities facilitates better compliance with laws, both by the community members and government organizations involved in the project (Bagherian 2013).

Numerous researchers have explored PPBs in SCWMPs from diverse aspects (Dolisca et al. 2006; Faham et al. 2008; Bagdi & Kurothe 2014; Davudirad et al. 2021; Guleria et al. 2017; Roba Gamo et al. 2021; Noor et al. 2022). These studies can be categorized based on three key aspects: the analysis method employed, the local people or experts interviewed, and the indicators associated with the questionnaire.

The literature review indicates that researchers have examined various indicators as potential PPBs. Overall, these studies reveal that indicators associated with demographics and planning can function as either barriers or incentives in stimulating people's participation in SCWMPs (refer to Table 1).

In addition, the literature review reveals that, apart from several indicators, certain previous studies (Agidew & Singh 2018; Powlen & Jones 2019; Roba Gamo et al. 2021) have utilized regression methods to predict the level of local residents' participation in WMPs. Similarly, Mohammadi Golrang et al. (2017) and Noor et al. (2018) identified factors influencing the level of beneficiaries' participation in these projects through factor analysis (FA). Furthermore, Ansah et al. (2020) and Cullen et al. (2020) in their research determined the factors affecting the level of people's engagement in SCWMPs using correlation analysis. Also, Mosaffaie et al. (2020) and Davudirad et al. (2021) prioritized factors hindering the engagement of locals in WMPs through statistical methods (such as the Friedman test) and multi-criteria decision-making methods (analytic hierarchy process – AHP).

Finally, an exhaustive literature review highlights that these studies have delved into critical factors influencing the participation of all stakeholders. Nevertheless, the outcomes of these investigations predominantly emanate from either the perspective of local residents (Bagherian et al. 2009; Mohammadi Golrang et al. 2017; Powlen & Jones 2019; Roba Gamo et al. 2021; Noor et al. 2022) or experts (Jamshidi & Amini 2013; Salehpour Jam et al. 2017; Mosaffaie & Salehpour Jam 2021). The simultaneous evaluation of both expert and locals' perspectives has been a seldom-explored aspect in these studies.

As stated, the level of locals' engagement in SCWMPs in Iran is currently not substantial. Consequently, one of the main challenges faced by NRWMO in this country is to enhance the extent of people's involvement in WIPs (Bagherian et al. 2009; Noor et al. 2018). In this regard, it is imperative to discern and specify the incentives and barriers influencing the participation of watershed residents in these projects. The present study aims to identify and prioritize these barriers within the Dastgerd Watershed based on the viewpoints of both expert groups and local residents.

This study aimed to identify and prioritize PPBs in SCWMPs, drawing insights from both experts and local residents. Additionally, the study assessed the level of agreement on the importance of these barriers from the perspectives of the two groups.

In this study, following an extensive literature review (Table 1) and interviews with both residents and experts (Agidew & Singh 2018; Mosaffaie & Salehpour Jam 2021; Noor et al. 2022), 13 indicators were meticulously selected and subsequently categorized into 4 groups (see Table 3). These groups encapsulate the most important factors that can impede people's participation in WIPs. To prioritize the PPBs in WIPs, a questionnaire utilizing a Likert scale was employed as the measurement tool. The questionnaires' reliability and validity were scrutinized through the Cronbach's alpha test and expert assessments, respectively (Bagherian et al. 2009; Powlen & Jones 2019). The Cronbach's alpha value was calculated using SPSS software, yielding 0.795 and 0.77 for experts and local residents, respectively. Consistent with previous research (Bagherian 2013; Mosaffaie & Salehpour Jam 2021), a Cronbach's alpha exceeding 0.7 indicates acceptable reliability and internal consistency of the research tool, i.e., the questionnaire.

The sample unit consists of rural households, and Cochran's formula was applied to determine the sample size for the local community (Moenikia & Zahed-Babelan 2010; Salhi et al. 2021; Shil et al. 2022). Based on the household population in the Dastgerd watershed (113 households) and Cochran's formula, the sample size was determined to be 87 individuals (heads of households). People were selected randomly on the day of the interview. Additionally, to capture the perspectives of experts, a panel of 12 experts with a minimum of 10 years of experience in government organizations affiliated with NRWMO of South Khorasan Province was assembled. The expert group encompasses various disciplines, including watershed studies and engineering, soil conservation, forestry and afforestation, rangeland and desertification, flood control, and extension studies.

From the standpoint of local communities, the foremost PPB is identified as ‘Ignoring people's benefit from the WIPs’. It is noteworthy that experts ranked this particular item 10th in importance. In contrast, the locals place significant emphasis on the economic benefits of projects, deeming it the most crucial factor. Experts believe that the implementation of WIPs indeed carries economic advantages for the people. However, it should be acknowledged that the economic benefits derived from these projects have an indirect and delayed impact on the local community's economic well-being (Davudirad et al. 2021). Additionally, in Iran, legal constraints limit the utilization of benefits derived from SCWMPs. Restrictions on pasture use, biological projects, and water stored in small dams are examples of such limitations (Salehpour Jam et al. 2017). Consequently, these projects lack the economic incentives required to stimulate voluntary participation among local residents. To address this, a dual approach is recommended: first, placing a special emphasis on multi-purpose WIPs that yield short-term economic benefits for the community, and second, considering the removal of legal barriers or the introduction of new laws to facilitate the utilization of WMPs' benefits (Salehpour Jam et al. 2017; Davudirad et al. 2021).

The factors of ‘lack of specific laws in the field of supporting people's participation’ and ‘centralizing power of decision-making at the NRWMO’ emerged as significant executive PPBs, as highlighted by both groups. These findings underscore the shared perspective that decisions regarding projects predominantly occur at government headquarters, sidelining the involvement of local communities in the decision-making process. Consequently, this lack of local participation hampers residents' engagement in various stages of the projects. Furthermore, it is noteworthy that, in Iran, there is an absence of legislation or guidelines pertaining to the involvement of all relevant stakeholders in decision-making, design, and implementation phases of SCWMPs (Eslami & Noor 2022).

The results indicate a significant difference between the perspectives of experts and the local community regarding the importance of the factor ‘lack of people's consultation and attention to their suggestions’. According to the expert viewpoint, X9 is ranked 9, whereas the local community ranks it as the third most important PPB. Although both groups acknowledge the importance of the ‘centralizing power of decision-making at the NRWMO’ (X8) factor as a PPB, experts do not attribute value to public consultation and incorporating local opinions in fostering the voluntary participation of residents in WMPs. To comprehend the rationale behind this discrepancy, it is crucial to carefully examine the opinions of experts. A detailed review of expert opinions reveals their perception that the local community lacks indigenous knowledge (rank 5), and as a result, they do not see the need for consulting with them. Substantiating this finding, expert opinions indicate that the factor ‘lack of employing local labour in project implementation’ is deemed more important than the ‘lack of people's consultation and attention to their suggestions’ item. Therefore, experts believe that due to insufficient knowledge, the local community may not be adequately consulted. In other words, from the experts' perspective, the ‘centralizing power of decision-making at the NRWMO’ stands as the most crucial PPB. Simultaneously, they contend that decision-making and policy formulation should exclusively be handled by experts (without participatory decision-making), and people should only implement their plans as a labor force. Bagherian et al. (2017) emphasized that consulting with the local community, particularly in the pre-implementation phase, and avoiding centralization of decision-making power in offices, serves to identify the needs of watershed residents and encourages all stakeholders to participate in SCWMPs. Consequently, it is strongly recommended to shift the perspective of experts and emphasize the development of participatory guidelines for these projects. Furthermore, given that expert opinions significantly impact policy-making in watersheds, any misconceptions about the barriers and incentives for people's participation may yield adverse outcomes in the planning of WIPs.

In general, given the importance of executive and economic factors, it can be asserted that the effective removal of barriers associated with economic-executive aspects significantly influences the encouragement of people to participate in SCWMPs (Eslami & Noor 2022; Hore et al. 2020; Mosaffaie & Salehpour Jam 2021). To mitigate the impact of these PPBs, it is recommended to consider the benefits of watershed residents in the implementation of WMPs. This can be achieved through the introduction of new watershed management laws, the implementation of multi-purpose SCWMPs, and the engagement of local communities from the initial stages of decision-making through to implementation. Furthermore, educational programs should be implemented to inform rural communities about the objectives of the project, fostering motivation, and increasing acceptance of watershed programs.

Moreover, based on the material and method section, the two-sample Kolmogorov–Smirnov test was used for testing the difference in the importance of PPBS from the people's and experts' perspectives (Table 5).

The results reveal a significant difference (at a significance level of 1%) in opinions between the people and experts regarding the importance and role of certain PPBs. Notably, there is a substantial disparity between the two groups in their views on the importance of barriers such as ‘ignoring people's benefit from the project’ (X2) and ‘lack of people consultation and attention to their suggestions’ (X9) in the context of people's involvement in WMPs. While these factors are deemed crucial from the perspective of the locals, who emphasize the need to identify and eliminate barriers to their participation, experts perceive these indicators as less important compared to others. A fundamental aspect of collaborative management is to engage all relevant stakeholders with an interest in SCWMPs, incorporating the knowledge of both local residents and experts during the problem-solving process (Simpson & De Loe 2020). Disagreements in the knowledge held by different stakeholders are acknowledged as a common and pivotal issue (Simpson et al. 2015; Vasileiou et al. 2022). To reconcile the varying perspectives of the public and experts, the establishment of think tanks and organized brainstorming sessions is recommended. These measures play a crucial role in fostering mutual understanding, converging the viewpoints of local residents and experts, and facilitating informed decision-making to address challenges (Boossabong 2017; Eslami & Noor 2022).

Overall, it can be asserted that the participatory approach in watershed management has contributed to enhancing the local community's attitudes toward watershed management. Additionally, it has fostered alignment between the perspectives of local residents and experts. Ultimately, adopting the participatory approach has successfully mitigated social-demographic, executive, and educational-extension barriers, resulting in an elevated level of community participation.

It can be deduced that, in the studied watershed, the main PPBs, according to the consensus of both groups, are associated with economic-executive indicators. These findings hold practical significance for executive officials, as the elimination of these barriers, particularly the ones deemed high-priority, is poised to enhance stakeholder participation. During project design, meticulous attention to economic factors within the planning component is crucial, as they may function as either barriers or incentives for people's involvement. Barriers such as the delayed profitability of WIPs and legal constraints on reaping their benefits pose significant challenges to people's participation. Nonetheless, addressing economic concerns during project design, particularly by removing these economic barriers, has the potential to elevate rural households' income and serve as a catalyst for increased participation. To overcome economic barriers related to planning (X2), the utilization of multi-purpose projects with short-term profitability (or combined with long-term profitability) is recommended. Additionally, if legal barriers impede the utilization of project benefits, they must be addressed before project implementation, necessitating the development of relevant regulations. Factors related to the executive indicator underline the need to transition from a centralized decision-making and top-down approach to collaborative management. This shift involves consulting with all stakeholders during problem identification, solution formulation, and the implementation of SCWMPs. Consequently, the removal of these barriers promotes voluntary participation in WMPs. Furthermore, the results of the two-sample Kolmogorov–Smirnov test indicate that the two groups had different perspectives regarding the importance of 60% of PPBs. To address this disparity, the establishment of think tanks and engaging in brainstorming sessions play a pivotal role in fostering mutual understanding, converging the viewpoints of local residents and experts, and facilitating decision-making to address challenges.

All relevant data are included in the paper or its Supplementary Information.

The authors declare there is no conflict.