Listen
graphic
View largeDownload slide

In the current era of climate change, along with population and urbanization growth, Pakistan is facing increasing environmental challenges. These challenges intensified the pressure on the existing municipal water supply (MWS), which necessitated a need for a comprehensive assessment of the municipal water dynamics in these three cities. This research aimed sixfold: assessing the current municipal water services, municipal water demand, groundwater table depletion, satisfaction, awareness level, and the monetary indicators of the MWS. A three-stage key performance indicator (KPI) -based questionnaire survey was conducted, both online and through a field survey, self-administered between March 2022 and December 2023 in Islamabad (planned), Rawalpindi, and Mardan (unplanned). Public water supply (PWS) coverage remained 63% in Islamabad and 52% in Rawalpindi, while Mardan heavily relied on (44%) bore wells. Similarly, water scarcity remained alarmingly high in Islamabad (82%) and Rawalpindi (72%), compared to (relatively) low in Mardan (16%) between June and August every year. Over the past three decades, groundwater depths (GWD) in Rawalpindi have increased up to 300 ft, in Islamabad by 200 ft, and in Mardan by 50 ft. The study calls for intensified roles of all stakeholders, including the community, municipalities, policymakers, and urban planners, to ensure sustained municipal water supply.

Listen

  • A three-stage, KPI-based approach was applied to municipal water security.

  • The per capita daily municipal water demand in gallons was 33.5, 30.5, and 21.7 for Islamabad, Rawalpindi, and Mardan.

  • The groundwater depth in Rawalpindi, Islamabad, and Mardan has increased to 300, 200, and 50 ft.

  • The study urged all stakeholders, including municipalities, communities, and policymakers, to address municipal water security.

groundwater decline, municipal water demand, municipal water security, planned and unplanned cities, satisfaction and awareness level, water scarcity
Listen

Water is an essential component of the ecosystem and the foundation of life on Earth (Durrani 2020). Safe and secure water can be an avenue of growth and well-being (Kingsland 2021). In the context of the quality and quantity of water supplied to the inhabitants of an area, municipal water supply (MWS) systems play a key role (Abanyie et al. 2023). These systems, comprising institutions and mechanisms, shape the volumetric and qualitative water requirement that is often need-oriented (Najafzadeh & Zeinolabedini 2018). Urbanization and population dynamics are considered the most potential drivers that impact municipal water security, primarily influenced by demographic growth (Biswas & Tortajada 2018; UN 2022), along with physical indicators, biological factors, and socioeconomic circumstances (Sufyanullah et al. 2022; Zhang et al. 2022). To further illustrate, uncontrolled and unmanaged urbanization hampers both the quantity and quality of MWS. This situation further affects the time of MWS services and frequency as per the households' needs (Heidari et al. 2021). Urbanization and water insecurity are the two globally intersecting issues affecting human livelihood and the ecosystem (Srivastava & Chinnasamy 2022). Also, the ‘World Urbanization Prospects’ report forecasts that half of the world's population will be living in urban centers (cities) by 2030 (Economic 2019), necessitating a need for sustainable water supply in a quickly changing environment. Moreover, the expected rise in the number of megacities from 33 in 2018 to 43 by 2030 will intensify pressures on natural resources, leading to social disturbances, health issues, and physical imbalances, particularly in unplanned urban areas (Zeren Cetin et al. 2023). Recognizing these challenges, urban municipal water security has drawn increasing attention from policymakers, practitioners, and researchers (Romero-Lankao & Gnatz 2016). This is particularly pertinent in the context of Sustainable Development Goals 6 and 11, which emphasize the importance of water security.

In Pakistan, the challenges of municipal water security are exacerbated by rapid urbanization and population growth. Since entering the ‘water-stressed’ category in 2000, Pakistan is projected to become ‘water scarce’ by 2030 (Young et al. 2019). The escalating water demand, increasing by 10% annually, is projected to cross 338 billion m3 by 2025 (Mustafa et al. 2013). According to the Pakistan Bureau of Statistics 2023 reports, Pakistan's population surge from 132 million in 1998 to 241.5 million by 2023 further complicates the mismatch between water demand and supply. The urban population share reaches up to 38.8% in the 2023 census (Kamran et al. 2023a). This significant population burden and urbanization create a mismatch between water demand and supply (Bharti et al. 2020). And will require effective management strategies to bridge the gaps by building more catchment reservoirs and improving management practices (Khoso et al. 2015).

Considering these issues, around 80% of Pakistanis experience serious water scarcity issues at least once a month each year (Mekonnen & Hoekstra 2016). More than 70% of the drinking water needs in the country are met through groundwater sources (Raza et al. 2017). Municipal water consumption was 5.48 billion cubic meters (BCM) in 2017 and is projected to reach 10.36 BCM by 2050. Around 30 million Pakistanis and 80% of the population of 24 major cities have no access to safe drinking water. In the context of urbanization and climate change, the primary environmental challenges of Islamabad, Rawalpindi, and Mardan include urban sprawl, lack of water and sanitation facilities, air and water pollution, urban floods, high temperature and erratic rainfall, and deterioration of municipal water services. Like most cities and municipalities of South Asia, Islamabad, Rawalpindi, and Mardan are also facing the challenges of municipal water security (Wang et al. 2020; Chapagain et al. 2022). Previous studies highlight that population pressures, inappropriate water delivery mechanisms, infrastructural issues, lack of knowledge, and climate change are among the key factors contributing to municipal water scarcity in these cities (Zakar et al. 2020; Habib 2021). The water availability situation in Islamabad and Rawalpindi worsened by the large-scale development of new housing projects in the last three decades, while Mardan has been facing the same since last decade. According to Shah et al. (2022) in Islamabad, there is a huge mismatch between municipal water demand (475,000 m3/day) and supply (280,000 m3/day). In Islamabad, Rawalpindi, and Mardan continuous population growth has significantly increased pressure on the MWS systems. This increase in population caused a rise in the municipal water demand overwhelming existing infrastructure. As a result, municipal water resources management became challenging and required improved strategies for sustainable management. Water security issues in municipalities are reported due to physical and socioeconomic indicators (Chitonge 2020), poor water supply infrastructure, climate change, and lack of resources (Adom et al. 2023).

Numerous studies explored the broader implication, however, there remains a critical knowledge gap regarding the localized socio-demographic effect on municipal water security in planned, unplanned, and newly urbanizing cities in Pakistan (Shah et al. 2021). Moreover, in developing countries, the scarcity of specific data/information on the socioeconomic characteristics of populations and water supply remains the most unexplored challenge, restricting appropriate planning and management. Localized studies are vital in providing detailed analysis, which may be disguised as regional or global studies (Najafzadeh & Zeinolabedini 2019). The findings of this study may lead to more specific and effective municipal water management actions in varying urban contexts. Therefore, this study aims to bridge the gap by providing a comprehensive assessment of how socio-demographic factors influence municipal water security in planned, unplanned, and newly urbanizing cities across Pakistan. The results are expected to offer valuable recommendations for policymakers and urban planners to develop adaptive strategies that cater to the diverse needs of urban populations. These findings will help in designing context-specific interventions and policies for sustainable and robust water supply infrastructure.

The goal of the current study was, therefore, to perform a thorough and comparative evaluation based on the water security key performance indicators (KPIs). These KPIs are designed to evaluate MWS systems, which are mostly based on population characteristics, needs, issues, and perceptions. The specific objectives of the research study included the assessment of the socioeconomic demographic characteristics and the assessment of MWS sources and practices. Estimation of residential municipal water demand and groundwater depletion. Assessment of water scarcity and satisfaction levels of the community. Assess MWS tariffs and connection fees in the study areas.

Listen

Description of the study areas

Listen
Study areas were chosen based on their distinctive features and intended objectives. In the category of planned urbanization, Islamabad was considered. Rawalpindi was picked for unplanned urbanization, while Mardan was selected due to its recent urban growth trend Figure 1. (A) Islamabad, the capital city, illustrates planned expansion. The city was established in 1960 having predefined five zones (Hassan et al. 2016). Islamabad covers 906 km² and has a tropical to subtropical climate. The city attracts a diverse population from all parts of the country (Shaheen et al. 2015), making it a multicultural (cosmopolitan) urbanized area. The average annual temperature is 20.9 °C, with annual precipitation of 1323 mm (Liu & Jiang 2021). (B) Rawalpindi is the fourth-largest city in Pakistan (ul Haq et al. 2021). It represents unplanned urbanization growth. The city has a long historically rich culture and is situated in the Pothohar Plateau (Kamran et al. 2023a). According to the Köppen–Geiger climate classification system the climatic condition of the city falls under the humid and subtropical category (Geiger 1961). The average rainfall is 1255 mm, and the mean annual temperature is 21.3 °C. (C) The third selected study area was Tehsil Mardan. As per observation and published literature the city has been experiencing rapid unplanned urban growth (Yar 2020) during the past two decades. Mardan is the second-largest city in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan and demonstrates hot to semi-arid conditions. The mean annual rainfall and temperature recorded were 560 mm and 22 °C, respectively. The highest rainfall occurs in August in the monsoon season with 122 mm. June is considered the hottest month of the year.
Figure 1
Study areas description: (a) Pakistan, (b) Islamabad, (c) Rawalpindi, and (d) Mardan.
View largeDownload slide

Study areas description: (a) Pakistan, (b) Islamabad, (c) Rawalpindi, and (d) Mardan.

Figure 1
Study areas description: (a) Pakistan, (b) Islamabad, (c) Rawalpindi, and (d) Mardan.
View largeDownload slide

Study areas description: (a) Pakistan, (b) Islamabad, (c) Rawalpindi, and (d) Mardan.

Close modal

Respondents sampling and data collection techniques

Listen

Primary data were collected from March 2022 to December 2023 through a questionnaire survey. A total of 816 respondents were surveyed through online and field surveys, self-monitored. A multistage surveying approach was used (Shah et al. 2018). The concerned districts were chosen in the first stage according to the time, resources, and anticipated goals. The tehsil level was selected for the second stage. Only respondents residing in the designated research regions were targeted for the third stage.

Development of KPIs and indicators

Listen
A well-planned questionnaire survey was conducted to determine the current municipal water security within the research areas (Cetrulo et al. 2019). KPIs, such as MWS coverage, demand and supply, groundwater decline, water tariffs, and connection costs were utilized in the survey. These KPIs serve as useful benchmarks for the assessment and comparison of water security status in the study areas Figure 2. These KPIs were integrated into about 57 questions, which were simple to understand and respond to by the respondents. The types of MWS in the selected areas were assessed to determine the coverage of the public water supply (PWS) and other conventional water supply sources (Arreguin-Cortes et al. 2019). To understand water scarcity, questions regarding water supply duration and frequency were asked (Koop & van Leeuwen 2015). A thorough assessment of the groundwater level was necessary to comprehend groundwater table depletion (Yar 2020; ul Haq et al. 2021). The stakeholder satisfaction KPI collects opinions on various aspects of water supply services (Adom et al. 2023). Water connection costs and tariff KPIs provide insights into the economic aspects of water accessibility (Marttunen et al. 2019). Due to the unavailability of field data and measuring devices, the household municipal water requirements were estimated by incorporating bucket measurement for collection and frequency (Pearson 2016; Mangalekar & Gumaste 2022). The average volume of a residential/municipal water bucket was 30 L or 7.93 gallons. SPSS and MS Excel were used for data analysis and presentation of results.
Figure 2
KPIs for municipal water security assessment.
View largeDownload slide

KPIs for municipal water security assessment.

Figure 2
KPIs for municipal water security assessment.
View largeDownload slide

KPIs for municipal water security assessment.

Close modal
Listen

Sociodemographics of the respondents

Listen

The demographic characteristics of the study areas revealed a general gender distribution, i.e., 35% female and 65% male (Karres et al. 2022). Similar results were also reported by previous studies on gender ratios in Rawalpindi and Islamabad (Razzaq et al. 2018). In Mardan, 52% of respondents indicated a monthly income range of 40,000–60,000 (Pakistani rupees), whereas in Islamabad (47%) and Rawalpindi (51%), income ranges were more than 100,000 (Pakistani rupees), and 60,000 to 100,000 (Pakistani rupees), respectively. Educational qualification results outlined that 68, 53, and 27% of respondents in Islamabad, Rawalpindi, and Mardan were educated to master level, which has also been reported by other studies (Ajaps & Obiagu 2021). Student respondents were highest in Islamabad, followed by Mardan and Rawalpindi (Table 1). Social demographics and economic status are essential predictors of MWS in all the study areas (Gomez et al. 2019).

Table 1

Socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents

Islamabad
Rawalpindi
Mardan
Total
Freq.PercentageFreq.PercentageFreq.PercentageFreq.Percentage
A. Gender distribution 
 Male 126 62% 120 55% 281 71% 527 65% 
 Female 78 38% 98 45% 113 29% 289 35% 
B. Age distribution 
 18–30 years 92 45% 86 39% 206 52% 384 47% 
 31–40 years 71 35% 100 46% 100 25% 271 33% 
 41–50 years 28 14% 20 9% 79 20% 127 16% 
 51–60 years 8 4% 9 4% 9 2% 26 3% 
  > 60 years 5 3% 3 1% 0 0% 8 1% 
C. Household size distribution 
 1–3 105 52% 41 19% 74 19% 220 27% 
 4–7 69 34% 119 55% 262 67% 450 55% 
  > 7 30 15% 58 27% 58 15% 146 18% 
D. Household structure distribution 
 Single/Nuclear 105 52% 70 32% 82 21% 257 32% 
 Joint family system 99 49% 148 68% 312 79% 559 69% 
E. Average monthly income per household 
 20–40 thousand 0 0% 13 6% 48 12% 61 8% 
 40–60 thousand 26 13% 27 12% 206 52% 259 32% 
 60 thousand–1 lakh 83 41% 110 51% 96 24% 289 35% 
 More than 1 lakh 95 47% 68 31% 44 11% 207 25% 
F. Educational qualification of the respondents 
 Intermediate 7 3% 25 12% 29 7% 61 8% 
 Bachelors 34 17% 53 24% 245 62% 332 41% 
 Masters 139 68% 114 52% 107 27% 360 44% 
 MS 2 1% 9 4% 13 3% 24 3% 
 Ph.D. 22 11% 17 8% 0 0% 39 5% 
G. Residency duration in study areas 
 1–5 years 0 0% 35 16% 38 10% 73 9% 
 6–10 years 118 58% 31 14% 31 8% 180 22% 
 11–15 years 15 7% 24 11% 69 18% 108 13% 
 15–20 years 39 19% 64 29% 126 32% 229 28% 
 More than 20 years 32 16% 64 29% 130 33% 226 28% 
H. Employment status of the respondents 
 Student 55 27% 37 17% 71 18% 163 20% 
 Unemployed 9 4% 40 18% 36 9% 85 10% 
 Housewife 2 1% 12 6% 0 0% 14 2% 
Informal employment 9 4% 17 8% 68 17% 94 12% 
Formal employment 127 62% 108 50% 219 56% 454 56% 
Retired 2 1% 4 2% 0 0% 6 1% 
Islamabad
Rawalpindi
Mardan
Total
Freq.PercentageFreq.PercentageFreq.PercentageFreq.Percentage
A. Gender distribution 
 Male 126 62% 120 55% 281 71% 527 65% 
 Female 78 38% 98 45% 113 29% 289 35% 
B. Age distribution 
 18–30 years 92 45% 86 39% 206 52% 384 47% 
 31–40 years 71 35% 100 46% 100 25% 271 33% 
 41–50 years 28 14% 20 9% 79 20% 127 16% 
 51–60 years 8 4% 9 4% 9 2% 26 3% 
  > 60 years 5 3% 3 1% 0 0% 8 1% 
C. Household size distribution 
 1–3 105 52% 41 19% 74 19% 220 27% 
 4–7 69 34% 119 55% 262 67% 450 55% 
  > 7 30 15% 58 27% 58 15% 146 18% 
D. Household structure distribution 
 Single/Nuclear 105 52% 70 32% 82 21% 257 32% 
 Joint family system 99 49% 148 68% 312 79% 559 69% 
E. Average monthly income per household 
 20–40 thousand 0 0% 13 6% 48 12% 61 8% 
 40–60 thousand 26 13% 27 12% 206 52% 259 32% 
 60 thousand–1 lakh 83 41% 110 51% 96 24% 289 35% 
 More than 1 lakh 95 47% 68 31% 44 11% 207 25% 
F. Educational qualification of the respondents 
 Intermediate 7 3% 25 12% 29 7% 61 8% 
 Bachelors 34 17% 53 24% 245 62% 332 41% 
 Masters 139 68% 114 52% 107 27% 360 44% 
 MS 2 1% 9 4% 13 3% 24 3% 
 Ph.D. 22 11% 17 8% 0 0% 39 5% 
G. Residency duration in study areas 
 1–5 years 0 0% 35 16% 38 10% 73 9% 
 6–10 years 118 58% 31 14% 31 8% 180 22% 
 11–15 years 15 7% 24 11% 69 18% 108 13% 
 15–20 years 39 19% 64 29% 126 32% 229 28% 
 More than 20 years 32 16% 64 29% 130 33% 226 28% 
H. Employment status of the respondents 
 Student 55 27% 37 17% 71 18% 163 20% 
 Unemployed 9 4% 40 18% 36 9% 85 10% 
 Housewife 2 1% 12 6% 0 0% 14 2% 
Informal employment 9 4% 17 8% 68 17% 94 12% 
Formal employment 127 62% 108 50% 219 56% 454 56% 
Retired 2 1% 4 2% 0 0% 6 1% 
View Large

Sources of municipal water supply

Listen
The objective of this KPI was to determine the distribution of MWS sources in the study areas Figure 3. The results showed that the PWS coverage was high in Rawalpindi (50%), followed by Islamabad (39%), and Mardan (5%), respectively. Bore well and hand pump distributions showed a clear predominance in Mardan, which is linked to shallow GWD (Yar 2020). Due to deeper GWD in Rawalpindi and Islamabad (Goswami & Bhattacharjya 2023), less coverage of private borewells. Islamabad and Rawalpindi also showed marginal presence of water taker requirements (Hoekstra et al. 2018). Water tanker dependance was absent in Mardan, contrasting with 3.7% in Rawalpindi and 2% in Islamabad (Saikia et al. 2022).
Figure 3
Water supply sources were reported by respondents in each study area. The numbers given show the percentage of the total respondents for each study area according to each water supply source.
View largeDownload slide

Water supply sources were reported by respondents in each study area. The numbers given show the percentage of the total respondents for each study area according to each water supply source.

Figure 3
Water supply sources were reported by respondents in each study area. The numbers given show the percentage of the total respondents for each study area according to each water supply source.
View largeDownload slide

Water supply sources were reported by respondents in each study area. The numbers given show the percentage of the total respondents for each study area according to each water supply source.

Close modal

Municipal water demand estimation

Listen
This KPI was used to assess the comparative water demand based on individual and household-level analysis Figure 4. The diversity in drinking and bathing water consumption is attributed to differences in geographical, socioeconomic, and environmental conditions (Figure 4(a) and 4(b)). The weekly frequency of bathing outlined that more than 60% of respondents reported ‘more than five times’ in Islamabad and Rawalpindi, while 44% were found in Mardan (Figure 4(c)). The overall water requirements for bathing outlined that 50% of respondents used one bucket for a single bath, and 33% reported using two buckets (Figure 4(d)). According to a relative comparison of dishwashing and cooking water requirements, the respondents from Rawalpindi use more than five buckets whereas in Mardan and Islamabad, two buckets (Figure 4(e)). Once a week laundry was reported by 35, 25, and 21%, respectively, in Islamabad, Mardan, and Rawalpindi (Figure 4(f)) (Marttunen et al. 2019). Water demand for kitchen gardening was highest in Rawalpindi where five buckets of water were used by 47% of respondents, compared to 31% in Islamabad, and 9% in Mardan (Figure 4(g)). Water requirements for vehicle washing are illustrated in Figure 4(h). All the questionnaire responses were averaged to get a quantitative value for calculating per capita municipal water demand Table 2.
Table 2

Per person municipal water demand (gallons per day)

IslamabadRawalpindiMardan
Drinking water requirements 0.76 1.0 0.7 
Bathing/shower 13.30 12.7 6.9 
Cooking and dishwashing 5.10 4.6 3.1 
Laundry 2.38 2.1 1.3 
Sanitation and toilet 7.13 5.3 5.1 
Kitchen gardening 0.48 0.6 0.2 
Washing bicycle/motorcycle 0.10 0.1 0.1 
Washing car/vehicle 0.01 0.0 0.0 
Ablution 2.64 2.6 2.6 
Lawn sprinkling 1.06 1.1 1.1 
Hand washing 0.53 0.5 0.5 
Water demand/day 33.5 30.5 21.7 
IslamabadRawalpindiMardan
Drinking water requirements 0.76 1.0 0.7 
Bathing/shower 13.30 12.7 6.9 
Cooking and dishwashing 5.10 4.6 3.1 
Laundry 2.38 2.1 1.3 
Sanitation and toilet 7.13 5.3 5.1 
Kitchen gardening 0.48 0.6 0.2 
Washing bicycle/motorcycle 0.10 0.1 0.1 
Washing car/vehicle 0.01 0.0 0.0 
Ablution 2.64 2.6 2.6 
Lawn sprinkling 1.06 1.1 1.1 
Hand washing 0.53 0.5 0.5 
Water demand/day 33.5 30.5 21.7 

The bold values differentiate between the individual values and the sum of all municipal water demand in all cities.

View Large
Figure 4
Daily municipal water demand: (a) drinking water requirements, (b) bathing water requirements, (c) bathing per week, (d) number of buckets for one-time bathing, (e) water requirements for cooking and dishwashing, (f) laundry water requirements, (g) water requirements for kitchen gardening, and (h) water for vehicle washing.
View largeDownload slide

Daily municipal water demand: (a) drinking water requirements, (b) bathing water requirements, (c) bathing per week, (d) number of buckets for one-time bathing, (e) water requirements for cooking and dishwashing, (f) laundry water requirements, (g) water requirements for kitchen gardening, and (h) water for vehicle washing.

Figure 4
Daily municipal water demand: (a) drinking water requirements, (b) bathing water requirements, (c) bathing per week, (d) number of buckets for one-time bathing, (e) water requirements for cooking and dishwashing, (f) laundry water requirements, (g) water requirements for kitchen gardening, and (h) water for vehicle washing.
View largeDownload slide

Daily municipal water demand: (a) drinking water requirements, (b) bathing water requirements, (c) bathing per week, (d) number of buckets for one-time bathing, (e) water requirements for cooking and dishwashing, (f) laundry water requirements, (g) water requirements for kitchen gardening, and (h) water for vehicle washing.

Close modal

In Pakistan, the municipal water consumption demand varies in the range of 8–92 gallons (0.03–0.34 m3) per person per day (Bhatti & Nasu 2010). Comparative analysis showed that Mardan has lower water demand due to less consumption of water for bathing, cooking, laundry, and sanitation. Socioeconomic factors also play an important role in municipal water consumption patterns. Standard of living, lifestyle, and income status are some other factors to be considered for lower municipal water demand in Mardan. Population density, economic, and industrial activities are less prevalent in Mardan as compared to the rest of the two cities. To improve water security, the government should promote water conservation strategies, control population density, and raise awareness regarding judicious usage of water.

Water scarcity frequency, magnitude, and distribution

Listen
Community well-being, socioeconomic and general sustainability could be greatly influenced by municipal water scarcity Figure 5. A significant portion of respondents in Islamabad (82%) and Rawalpindi (72%) stated the observance of water scarcity. On the other hand, in Mardan, fewer respondents (16%) reported MWS scarcity (Figure 5(a)). The possible reasons for Mardan's lower water scarcity include a shallow groundwater table, lower population density, and an abundance of water supply sources (Kamran et al. 2023b). December through February were the months with the highest water availability due to the winter season, more frequent rainfall, and less water requirements (Figure 5(b)). While analyzing months with restricted/scarce water availability, Islamabad identified June and July (72%), whereas Rawalpindi and Mardan identified June, July, and August (Figure 5(c). According to Biemans et al. (2013), water resources in South Asian countries are becoming more vulnerable; therefore, understanding the seasonal dynamics of water availability and shortages is critical (Rautanen et al. 2014). After evaluating months with ample and scarce water availability, the next step was the recognition of scarce water supply sources Figure 5(d). 74% of respondents in Mardan identified PWS, due to power shortages and repair and maintenance works of the water supply infrastructure in the summer season. Similarly in Islamabad and Rawalpindi, this ratio was 36 and 28%, and the major drivers were increase in demand. Mardan, with 46.2% of respondents reporting 6–8 h of PWS; similar results were reported for Lahore (Rauf & Siddiqi 2008). In Rawalpindi and Islamabad 10–12 operational hours were prevalent (Figure 5(e)). Water scarcity can be caused by one or more factors, such as population growth, ineffective management, groundwater depletion, climate change, lack of storage, and unequal distribution. Participants recognized population growth with significant frequencies of 72, 73, and 81% in Islamabad, Rawalpindi, and Mardan. Ineffective management appeared as a second substantial factor with percentages of 67% (Islamabad), 67% (Rawalpindi), and 57% (Mardan) (Figure 5(f)). Resilient urban design is necessary to mitigate water stress in rapidly growing urban centers, as demonstrated by the urbanization-related percentages of 57, 59, and 28%, in Islamabad, Rawalpindi, and Mardan respectively. The percentages of 57, 65, and 29% related to climate change demonstrate the need for climate adaptation measures, while the percentages of 43, 25, and 7% related to the lack of storage facilities demonstrate the crucial role that infrastructure development plays. Unbalanced distribution is widespread, especially in Mardan, where it accounts for 42% of the research area.
Figure 5
Water scarcity, magnitude, and distribution: (a) water scarcity observation, (b) months with ample water availability, (c) months with limited water availability, (d) scarce sources of MWS, (e) operational hours of public water supply (PWS), and (f) reasons for water scarcity.
View largeDownload slide

Water scarcity, magnitude, and distribution: (a) water scarcity observation, (b) months with ample water availability, (c) months with limited water availability, (d) scarce sources of MWS, (e) operational hours of public water supply (PWS), and (f) reasons for water scarcity.

Figure 5
Water scarcity, magnitude, and distribution: (a) water scarcity observation, (b) months with ample water availability, (c) months with limited water availability, (d) scarce sources of MWS, (e) operational hours of public water supply (PWS), and (f) reasons for water scarcity.
View largeDownload slide

Water scarcity, magnitude, and distribution: (a) water scarcity observation, (b) months with ample water availability, (c) months with limited water availability, (d) scarce sources of MWS, (e) operational hours of public water supply (PWS), and (f) reasons for water scarcity.

Close modal

Historical groundwater depth dynamics

Listen
Due to the unavailability of historic groundwater monitoring data in Pakistan, public survey tools remain a yardstick to estimate the historical groundwater depletion. This KPI consists of seven indicators, including questions on the depth of borewells on or before 1990, which serve as a point of reference in Figure 6. Subsequently, participants were asked about groundwater depth (GWD) at 5-year intervals. The GWD on or before 1990, revealed that Mardan's GWD was 10–15 ft (67%), due to a common shallow groundwater table (Figure 6(a)), while, Islamabad and Rawalpindi exhibited deeper categories, namely 40–50 ft and 50–60 ft (Figure 6(b) and 6(c)). GWD in 1995–2000, Mardan stands out with 15–20 (41%) and 20–25 (44%) ft, while Rawalpindi and Islamabad showed 60–80 ft and 80–100 ft. Between 2005 and 2010, the GWD in Islamabad was 120–140 ft (50%), in Rawalpindi, 140–160 ft (57%), and in Mardan, 30–35 ft (46%). Between 2015 and 2022, the GWD ranged from 180–200 ft in Islamabad, 260–300 ft in Rawalpindi, and 45–50 ft in Mardan. The continuous downward trend of GWD points to a severe overutilization of groundwater resources, driven by increased demand from population growth and insufficient replenishment. Similar results were reported by Nath et al. (2021); ul Haq et al. (2021) in India and Pakistan, where population growth and urbanization caused a decline in GWD, and recharge potential. The groundwater remains under constant pressure, in Punjab (Pakistan) where 90% of rural domestic water demand is met by groundwater (Qureshi 2020). Similar results were reported in the southern and central parts of Peshawar city (Pakistan) where the GWD increased alarmingly in the range of 195–253 ft (Yar et al. 2022).
Figure 6
Percentage of participants reporting each GWD for each 5-year interval from 1990 to 2022: (a) Mardan, (b) Islamabad, and (c) Rawalpindi.
View largeDownload slide

Percentage of participants reporting each GWD for each 5-year interval from 1990 to 2022: (a) Mardan, (b) Islamabad, and (c) Rawalpindi.

Figure 6
Percentage of participants reporting each GWD for each 5-year interval from 1990 to 2022: (a) Mardan, (b) Islamabad, and (c) Rawalpindi.
View largeDownload slide

Percentage of participants reporting each GWD for each 5-year interval from 1990 to 2022: (a) Mardan, (b) Islamabad, and (c) Rawalpindi.

Close modal

Level of satisfaction and awareness

Listen
The MWS authorities in the study areas were the Water and Sanitation Agency for Rawalpindi and the Capital Development Authority (CDA) for Islamabad. The Water and Sanitation Services Company Mardan and the Public Health Engineering Department (PHED) for Mardan. In Islamabad, 16% were ‘very unsatisfied’, 28% were ‘unsatisfied’, 28% were ‘satisfied’, and 3% were ‘very satisfied’ with the overall municipality services (Figure 7(a)). While 44.6% of customers reported a satisfaction level between 40 and 50%, 18.6% reported satisfaction between 50 and 60% and 23% reported satisfaction between 60 and 70% with MWS services (Figure 7(c)). In Rawalpindi 7% were ‘very unsatisfied’, 17% were ‘unsatisfied’, 42% were ‘satisfied’, and 16% were ‘very satisfied’ with the overall municipality services. While 40% of respondents reported a 50–60% satisfaction range, 30% reported a 40–50% range and 15% reported a 60–70% range satisfaction level with MWS services. In Mardan 10% were ‘very unsatisfied’, 8% were ‘unsatisfied’, 54% were ‘neutral’, 20% were ‘satisfied’, and 8% were ‘very satisfied’ with the overall municipality services. While 20% of respondents reported a 40–50% satisfaction range, 53% reported a 50–60% range and 14% reported a 60–70% range satisfaction level with MWS services. Similar results were obtained by Adom et al. (2023) in Nelson Mandela Municipality where 64% of respondents were not satisfied, and 17% satisfied with MWS services. Insufficient quantity and low pressure (23.8%), irregular scheduling and uneven distribution (27%), inadequate water quality (20%), leaking joints/pipes (15.3%), unreliable services (9.5%), and perceived excessive costs (4%) were the main reasons for dissatisfaction in Islamabad (Figure 7(e)). The most common water conservation practice in Islamabad (46%) and Mardan (30%) was ‘turning off the water when brushing and shaving’. While in Rawalpindi ‘regularly checking repair and repairing leaks’ were reported at 42% (Figure 7(d)). The application of rainwater harvesting practices in the community could reduce pressure on existing resources. Most of the respondents in Islamabad (85%), Rawalpindi (78%), and Mardan (71%) were aware of rainwater harvesting, however, the practicing frequencies in Rawalpindi, Islamabad, and Mardan were at 33, 25, and 19%, respectively, Figure 7(f). The rainwater harvesting potential of Rawalpindi and Islamabad is estimated at 3.5 million acre ft (MAF), and only 0.1 MAF is utilized (Ahmed et al. 2019). The results suggest that Mardan and Rawalpindi demonstrate relatively higher satisfaction levels with municipal water services compared to Islamabad. This variation could be attributed to differences in the management capabilities of the municipal water authorities and the specific challenges faced by each city. For instance, the capital city of Islamabad, despite higher awareness and knowledge about water conservation, faces significant dissatisfaction due to issues like unreliable service and inadequate infrastructure, which might be less pronounced in Mardan or Rawalpindi. Urging communities to harvest rainwater will reduce pressure on conventional water resources and contribute to enhanced municipal water security in the study areas. Based on the current results, a dedicated community awareness campaign is required to adopt rainwater harvesting at the household level. Awareness could inculcate residents about the benefits of rainwater harvesting, but its practical applications require guidelines, rules and laws for implantation and monetary resources for building rainwater harvesting structures at the household level. The government should formulate an action plan to encourage rainwater harvesting, design a prototype for each city, and inclusion of rainwater harvesting in building laws. The municipalities should explore the possibilities of providing rebates on water bills to residents implementing rainwater harvesting, and prioritizing investments in rainwater harvesting on municipal buildings.
Figure 7
Levels and reasons of satisfaction/dissatisfaction: (a) satisfaction from overall municipality services, (b) climate change impacts on water supply (WS), (c) satisfaction from water supply services, (d) water conservation practices, (e) reasons for dissatisfaction, and (f) rainwater harvesting.
View largeDownload slide

Levels and reasons of satisfaction/dissatisfaction: (a) satisfaction from overall municipality services, (b) climate change impacts on water supply (WS), (c) satisfaction from water supply services, (d) water conservation practices, (e) reasons for dissatisfaction, and (f) rainwater harvesting.

Figure 7
Levels and reasons of satisfaction/dissatisfaction: (a) satisfaction from overall municipality services, (b) climate change impacts on water supply (WS), (c) satisfaction from water supply services, (d) water conservation practices, (e) reasons for dissatisfaction, and (f) rainwater harvesting.
View largeDownload slide

Levels and reasons of satisfaction/dissatisfaction: (a) satisfaction from overall municipality services, (b) climate change impacts on water supply (WS), (c) satisfaction from water supply services, (d) water conservation practices, (e) reasons for dissatisfaction, and (f) rainwater harvesting.

Close modal

Water tariff and connection cost

Listen
This KPI consisted of seven indicators related to water tariff and connection costs (Figure (8)). The monthly PWS bill ranges show a clear pattern: 300–350 (Pakistani rupee) monthly bill in Islamabad, 400–450 (Pakistani rupee) range in Rawalpindi, and 150–200 (Pakistani rupee) range in Mardan (Figure 8(a)). Differences in water prices are attributed to variations in MWS sources, infrastructure status, water demand, cost, and geographical location. Rawalpindi having the highest frequency at 28% of respondents admitted to witnessing illegal connections (Figure 8(b)). More than 50% of the respondents in all the study areas showed a willingness to pay higher tariffs for improved MWS (Figure 8(c)). Rawalpindi and Islamabad have greater preference rates (Pakistani rupee) in the 600–800, and 800–1,000 ranges (53 and 46%, respectively), while in Mardan 79% of respondents in the 400–600 (Pakistani rupee) tariff range (Figure 8(d)). A community's willingness to pay higher charges reveals that they value water security. In Islamabad, 32% answered that their initial costs of PWS were between 2,000 and 3,000 (Pakistani rupee). Fifty percent of the respondents in Rawalpindi stated that their expenses went over 5,000 (Pakistani rupee) (Figure 8(e)). One of the most important metrics for evaluating the sustainable water supply is the installation of municipal water meters. A substantial majority (72%) of the respondents from surveyed cities expressed the belief that water supply agencies should install water meters (Figure 8(f)). Researchers (Khan et al. 2020) recommended that the CDA increase water tariffs and install water meters to promote sustainable MWS such as Bhalwal City of Pakistan (Yi et al. 2018).
Figure 8
Water tariff and connection cost: (a) monthly bill of PWS, (b) observing illegal connections in society, (c) community willingness to pay higher tariffs, (d) ranges of higher tariffs for improved public water supply (PWS), (e) installation cost of PWS, and (f) water meter installation.
View largeDownload slide

Water tariff and connection cost: (a) monthly bill of PWS, (b) observing illegal connections in society, (c) community willingness to pay higher tariffs, (d) ranges of higher tariffs for improved public water supply (PWS), (e) installation cost of PWS, and (f) water meter installation.

Figure 8
Water tariff and connection cost: (a) monthly bill of PWS, (b) observing illegal connections in society, (c) community willingness to pay higher tariffs, (d) ranges of higher tariffs for improved public water supply (PWS), (e) installation cost of PWS, and (f) water meter installation.
View largeDownload slide

Water tariff and connection cost: (a) monthly bill of PWS, (b) observing illegal connections in society, (c) community willingness to pay higher tariffs, (d) ranges of higher tariffs for improved public water supply (PWS), (e) installation cost of PWS, and (f) water meter installation.

Close modal
Listen

Socio-demographic assessments are necessary for sustainable water supply to safeguard millions of people from the severe effects of municipal water scarcity in both planned and unplanned urban contexts across Pakistan. Islamabad and Rawalpindi are already facing a dire situation due to the depletion of the groundwater table, coupled with significant challenges in the magnitude, frequency, and distribution of water scarcity. To improve the current state of water security, the municipalities/authorities must adopt a proactive approach in the planning, construction, and implementation of water supply programs in Islamabad and Rawalpindi. Mass-scale awareness programs must be launched regarding the importance of water, reduction of losses, rainwater harvesting, and conservation practices. Due to the shallow groundwater table, Mardan demonstrates reliance on private bore wells. PWS was a dominant category in Rawalpindi (49.5%), followed by Islamabad (38.7%). With diverse geographical, climatic, and socioeconomic differences, the bathing and drinking water requirements showed diverse results. The water scarcity KPI underscored a persistent issue mainly in Islamabad and Rawalpindi, in contrast, Mardan was less affected. The government should prepare a master plan for each city to control urbanization and the upsurge in illegal housing schemes. The building bylaws must include rainwater harvesting at the household level. These conclusions emphasized the impact of demographic factors, ineffective management, lowering GWD, urbanization, climate change, and insufficient storage facilities in contributing to municipal water shortages. To ensure sustainable MWS, comprehensive resilient urban planning, water management strategies, and adaptation measures to climate change are required. The groundwater depletion KPI indicated a shallow water table in Mardan, while Rawalpindi and Islamabad fall under deep water table categories. The satisfaction level outlined that municipal water consumers in Islamabad were 40–50% satisfied, while Mardan and Rawalpindi reported a 50–60% category. The most common reasons for dissatisfaction were leaky pipes, variation in water supply schedules, water quality, and quantity concerns among the studied locations. The illegal water supply connections remain a constant challenge, especially in Rawalpindi. The awareness level KPI revealed high awareness in Islamabad, followed by Rawalpindi and Mardan. The study recognized the importance of public awareness regarding the contributing factors of municipal water scarcity. Mass public awareness must be introduced to the community by considering educating communities and implementing water-saving practices, such as reducing shower/bathing time and adopting rainwater harvesting. However, only awareness-raising without implementation would be instrumental. Awareness should be converted into action by devising supportive indigenous policies and plans. These could include subsidies and rebates on water-saving techniques, updating building laws with rainwater harvesting installation, and technical guidance. Public–private partnerships (PPPs) and considering local non-governmental organizations will further add to the greater cause. Household adoption could be made easier by monetary support, technical guidance, stakeholder engagement, and user-friendly technologies. These measures will not only contribute to reducing pressure on the existing MWS sources but will ultimately improve the water security in the study locations.

Listen

  1. To ensure a resilient MWS system, it is imperative to comprehend the diverse sources of water supply based on physical location, socioeconomic status, and demographic disparities.

  2. Groundwater is one of the main sources of water supply in the study regions and in the given depleting scenarios, the groundwater recharge practices must be initiated at the household level, which would help to not only reduce source pressure but also prevent the precious resource (water) to become runoff and cause urban flooding. Rainwater harvesting applications at the household level will direct water into underground water resources. Creating permeable surfaces such as grass lawns and small infiltration trenches to facilitate groundwater infiltration.

  3. Urban planners and government authorities must consider all key stakeholders to address the issues related to MWS, like irregular scheduling, leaky pipes, and quality concerns that must be addressed to improve consumer satisfaction and water security.

  4. The municipalities should implement a proper cost-recovery plan with tiered pricing policies, accurate metering and billing systems, and PPP to improve efficiency.

  5. Educating and engaging indigenous communities in MWS services can enhance water security in the region. Also, public awareness campaigns can help to improve the understanding of the local population on water supply, especially in Mardan. The focus should also be on water-saving techniques at the household level to encourage water conservation and rainwater harvesting methods.

  6. Future research must be guided toward examining regulatory measures, community participation, and adaptation to climate change for detailed findings. These aspects play a pivotal role in enhancing municipal water management, increasing community resilience, and addressing the current and future challenges of climate uncertainty.

Listen

No funding was received for this study.

Listen

K. K., M. F. K., and U. K. were responsible for planning the methodology and compiling the data. F. S. and R. W. helped in conducting the analysis. The initial draft of the manuscript was prepared by K. K., with input from all authors during the review process. Subsequently, K. K. revised the manuscript based on the comments received. Finally, all authors thoroughly reviewed and approved the final version of the manuscript.

Listen

All relevant data are included in the paper or its Supplementary Information.

Listen

The authors declare there is no conflict.

Abanyie
S. K.
,
Ampadu
B.
,
Frimpong
N. A.
 &
Amuah
E. E. Y.
2023
Impact of improved water supply on livelihood and health: Emphasis on Doba and Nayagnia, Ghana
.
Innovation and Green Development
2
,
100033
.
Google Scholar
Crossref
Search ADS
 
Ahmed
T. F.
,
Shah
S. U. S.
,
Khan
M. A.
 &
Afzal
M. A.
2019
Productive use of rainwater for competing water demand in Pakistan
.
Water Utility Journal
21
,
41
–
50
.
Google Scholar
 
Ajaps
S. O.
 &
Obiagu
A. N.
2021
Increasing civic engagement through civic education: A critical consciousness theory perspective
.
Journal of Culture and Values in Education
4
,
64
–
87
.
Google Scholar
 
Arreguin-Cortes
F. I.
,
Saavedra-Horita
J. R.
,
Rodriguez-Varela
J. M.
,
Tzatchkov
V. G.
,
Cortez-Mejia
P. E.
,
Llaguno-Guilberto
O. J.
,
Sainos-Candelario
A.
,
Sandoval-Yoval
L.
,
Ortega-Gaucin
D.
,
Mendoza-Cazares
E. Y.
 &
Navarro-Barraza
S.
2019
Municipal level water security indices in Mexico
.
SN Applied Science
1
,
1194
.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-019-1180-2
.
Google Scholar
Crossref
Search ADS
 
Bharti
N.
,
Khandekar
N.
,
Sengupta
P.
,
Bhadwal
S.
 &
Kochhar
I.
2020
Dynamics of urban water supply management of two Himalayan towns in India
.
Water Policy
22
,
65
–
89
.
Google Scholar
Crossref
Search ADS
 
Bhatti
A. M.
 &
Nasu
S.
2010
Domestic water demand forecasting and management under changing socio-economic scenario
.
Society for Social Management Systems.
Google Scholar
 
Biemans
H.
,
Speelman
L. H.
,
Ludwig
F.
,
Moors
E. J.
,
Wiltshire
A. J.
,
Kumar
P.
,
Gerten
D.
 &
Kabat
P.
2013
Future water resources for food production in five south Asian river basins and potential for adaptation – A modeling study
.
Science of The Total Environment
468–469
,
S117
–
S131
.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2013.05.092
.
Google Scholar
 
Biswas
A. K.
 &
Tortajada
C.
2018
Assessing Global Water Megatrends, in: Assessing Global Water Megatrends
.
Springer, Singapore
, pp.
1
–
26
.
Google Scholar
Crossref
Search ADS
 
Chapagain
K.
,
Aboelnga
H. T.
,
Babel
M. S.
,
Ribbe
L.
,
Shinde
V. R.
,
Sharma
D.
 &
Dang
N. M.
2022
Urban water security: A comparative assessment and policy analysis of five cities in diverse developing countries of Asia
.
Environmental Development
43
,
100713
.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envdev.2022.100713
.
Google Scholar
Crossref
Search ADS
 
Chitonge
H.
2020
Water scarcity for most people in Africa is socially-induced
.
Africa at LSE
.
Available at: https://eprints.lse.ac.uk/108244/1/Africa_2020_12_11_water_scarcity_for_most_people_in_africa.pdf
Google Scholar
 
Durrani
Z. K.
2020
Water scarcity and social vulnerabilities: A multi-dimensional perspective of water challenges in Pakistan
.
Journal of Sustainability Education
1
,
3
–
12
.
Google Scholar
 
Economic, D. of
2019
World population prospects 2019
.
Department of Economic and Social Affairs. World Population Prospects 2019. United Nations, New York
.
Geiger
R.
1961
Überarbeitete Neuausgabe von Geiger, R. Köppen-Geiger/Klima der Erde. (Wandkarte 1: 16 Mill.)-Klett-Perthes, Gotha
.
Goswami
J.
 &
Bhattacharjya
R. K.
2023
Vulnerability assessment of groundwater-based public drinking water supply system of Kamrup district, Assam, India considering social parameters
.
Journal of The Institution of Engineers (India): Series A
104
,
483
–
499
.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s40030-023-00724-x
.
Google Scholar
 
Habib
Z.
2021
Water Availability, use and Challenges in Pakistan-Water Sector Challenges in the Indus Basin and Impact of Climate Change
.
Food & Agriculture Org
.
Google Scholar
 
Hassan
Z.
,
Shabbir
R.
,
Ahmad
S. S.
,
Malik
A. H.
,
Aziz
N.
,
Butt
A.
 &
Erum
S.
2016
Dynamics of land use and land cover change (LULCC) using geospatial techniques: A case study of Islamabad Pakistan
.
Springerplus
5
,
1
–
11
.
Google Scholar
PubMed
 
Heidari
H.
,
Arabi
M.
,
Warziniack
T.
 &
Sharvelle
S.
2021
Effects of urban development patterns on municipal water shortage
.
Frontiers in Water
3
.
Google Scholar
 
Hoekstra
A. Y.
,
Buurman
J.
 &
Van Ginkel
K. C. H.
2018
Urban water security: A review
.
Environmental Research Letters
13
,
53002
.
Google Scholar
Crossref
Search ADS
 
Kamran
,
Khan
J. A.
,
Khayyam
U.
,
Waheed
A.
 &
Khokhar
M. F.
2023a
Exploring the nexus between land use land cover (LULC) changes and population growth in a planned city of Islamabad and unplanned city of Rawalpindi, Pakistan
.
Heliyon
9
.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e13297
.
Google Scholar
 
Kamran
,
Khokhar
M. F.
,
Khan
J. A.
 &
Adil
I. H.
2023b
Spatio-temporal assessment of land use land cover changes and population dynamics using geoinformatics: A case study of Mardan, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan
.
Engineering Proceedings
56
,
103
.
Google Scholar
 
Karres
N.
,
Kang
S.
,
Aldous
A.
,
Pattison-Williams
J. K.
 &
Masuda
Y. J.
2022
How effective is community-based management of freshwater resources? A review
.
Journal of Environmental Management
323
,
116161
.
Google Scholar
Crossref
Search ADS
PubMed
 
Khoso
S.
,
Wagan
F. H.
,
Tunio
A. H.
 &
Ansari
A. A.
2015
An overview on emerging water scarcity in Pakistan, its causes, impacts and remedial measures
.
Journal of Applied Engineering Science
13
.
Google Scholar
 
Kingsland
J.
2021
How Water Poverty Impacts Public Health in US
.
Medical News Today
.
Google Scholar
 
Koop
S. H. A.
 &
van Leeuwen
C. J.
2015
Application of the improved city blueprint framework in 45 municipalities and regions
.
Water Resources Management
29
,
4629
–
4647
.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11269-015-1079-7
.
Google Scholar
Crossref
Search ADS
 
Mangalekar
R. D.
 &
Gumaste
K. S.
2022
User-based fuzzy end-use modeling of indoor urban residential water demand
.
Building Services Engineering Research and Technology
43
,
507
–
516
.
https://doi.org/10.1177/01436244221085916
.
Google Scholar
Crossref
Search ADS
 
Marttunen
M.
,
Mustajoki
J.
,
Sojamo
S.
,
Ahopelto
L.
 &
Keskinen
M.
2019
A framework for assessing water security and the water–energy–food nexus – the case of Finland
.
Sustainability
11
,
2900
.
Google Scholar
Crossref
Search ADS
 
Mekonnen
M. M.
 &
Hoekstra
A. Y.
2016
Four billion people facing severe water scarcity
.
Science Advance
2
,
e1500323
.
Google Scholar
 
Mustafa
D.
,
Akhter
M.
 &
Nasrallah
N.
2013
Understanding Pakistan's Water-Security Nexus
.
United States Institute of Peace
,
Washington, DC
.
Google Scholar
 
Pearson
A. L.
2016
Comparison of methods to estimate water access: A pilot study of a GPS-based approach in low resource settings
.
International Journal of Health Geographics
15
,
1
–
7
.
https://doi.org/10.1186/s12942-016-0062-8
.
Google Scholar
Crossref
Search ADS
PubMed
 
Qureshi
A. S.
2020
Groundwater governance in Pakistan: From colossal development to neglected management
.
Water (Basel)
12
,
3017
.
Google Scholar
 
Rauf
T.
 &
Siddiqi
M. W.
2008
Price-setting for residential water: Estimation of water demand in Lahore
.
The Pakistan Development Review
,
893
–
906
.
Google Scholar
 
Rautanen
S.-L.
,
van Koppen
B.
 &
Wagle
N.
2014
Community-driven multiple use water services: Lessons learned by the rural village water resources management project in Nepal
.
Water Alternatives
7
.
Google Scholar
 
Raza
M.
,
Hussain
F.
,
Lee
J.-Y.
,
Shakoor
M. B.
 &
Kwon
K. D.
2017
Groundwater status in Pakistan: A review of contamination, health risks, and potential needs
.
Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology
47
,
1713
–
1762
.
Google Scholar
Crossref
Search ADS
 
Razzaq
A.
,
Afzal
M.
,
Rauf
A.
 &
Yaseen
S.
2018
Gender ratio analysis in Rawalpindi and Islamabad: Causes and consequences
.
Asian Development Policy Review
6
,
100
–
114
.
Google Scholar
Crossref
Search ADS
 
Romero-Lankao
P.
 &
Gnatz
D. M.
2016
Conceptualizing urban water security in an urbanizing world
.
Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability
21
,
45
–
51
.
Google Scholar
Crossref
Search ADS
 
Saikia
P.
,
Beane
G.
,
Garriga
R. G.
,
Avello
P.
,
Ellis
L.
,
Fisher
S.
,
Leten
J.
,
Ruiz-Apilánez
I.
,
Shouler
M.
 &
Ward
R.
2022
City water resilience framework: A governance based planning tool to enhance urban water resilience
.
Sustainable Cities and Society
77
,
103497
.
Google Scholar
Crossref
Search ADS
 
Shah
A.
,
Ali
K.
 &
Nizami
S. M.
2021
Four decadal urban land degradation in Pakistan a case study of capital city Islamabad during 1979–2019
.
Environmental and Sustainability Indicators
10
,
100108
.
Google Scholar
Crossref
Search ADS
 
Shah
A.
,
Karim
R.
 &
Ali
K.
2022
Review of impacts of climate changes on the urban water security of Islamabad, Pakistan
.
Journal of Water and Land Development.
Google Scholar
 
Shaheen
N.
,
Baig
M. A.
,
Mahboob
M. A.
,
Akbar
S.
 &
Khokar
M. F.
2015
Application of remote sensing technologies to detect the vegetation changes during past two decades in Islamabad
.
Pakistan. Journal of Social Sciences (COES&RJ-JSS)
4
,
886
–
900
.
https://doi.org/10.25255/jss.2015.4.3.886.900
.
Google Scholar
Crossref
Search ADS
 
Srivastava
A.
,
Chinnasamy
P.
,
2022
Assessing groundwater Depletion In Southern India As A Function Of Urbanization And Change In Hydrology: A threat to tank irrigation in Madurai city
. In:
Climate Change and Water Security
(
Kolathayar
S.
,
Mondal
A.
 &
Chian
S. C.
, eds).
Springer
,
Singapore
, pp.
293
–
308
.
Google Scholar
Crossref
Search ADS
 
ul Haq
F.
,
Naeem
U. A.
,
Gabriel
H. F.
,
Khan
N. M.
,
Ahmad
I.
,
Ur Rehman
H.
 &
Zafar
M. A.
2021
Impact of urbanization on groundwater levels in Rawalpindi city, Pakistan
.
Pure and Applied Geophysics
178
,
491
–
500
.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00024-021-02660-y
Google Scholar
Crossref
Search ADS
 
UN
2022
World Population Prospects 2022
.
United Nation
1
–
52
.
Wang
X.
,
Chen
Y.
,
Li
Z.
,
Fang
G.
 &
Wang
Y.
2020
Development and utilization of water resources and assessment of water security in Central Asia
.
Agricultural Water Management
240
,
106297
.
Google Scholar
Crossref
Search ADS
 
Yar
P.
2020
Urban development and its impact on the depletion of groundwater aquifers in Mardan city, Pakistan
.
Groundwater for Sustainable Development
11
,
100426
.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsd.2020.100426
Google Scholar
Crossref
Search ADS
 
Yar
P.
,
Huafu
J.
,
Khan
M. A.
,
Rashid
W.
 &
Khan
S.
2022
Modification of land use/land cover and its impact on groundwater in Peshawar city, Pakistan
.
Journal of the Indian Society of Remote Sensing
,
1
–
16
.
Google Scholar
 
Yi
S.
,
Ryu
M.
,
Suh
J.
,
Kim
S.
,
Seo
S.
,
Kim
S.
 &
Bond
H.
2018
Smart Water Management: Case Study Report
.
K-water, IWRA 19
.
Young
W. J.
,
Anwar
A.
,
Bhatti
T.
,
Borgomeo
E.
,
Davies
S.
,
Garthwaite
W. R.
III,
Gilmont
E. M.
,
Leb
C.
,
Lytton
L.
,
Makin
I.
 &
Saeed
B.
2019
Pakistan: Getting More From Water, Water Papers
.
World Bank, Washington DC, USA
.
https://doi.org/doi:10.1596/31160
.
Google Scholar
Crossref
Search ADS
 
Zakar
M. Z.
,
Zakar
D. R.
 &
Fischer
F.
2020
Climate change-induced water scarcity: A threat to human health
.
South Asian Studies
27
.
Google Scholar
 
Zeren Cetin
I.
,
Varol
T.
,
Ozel
H. B.
 &
Sevik
H.
2023
The effects of climate on land use/cover: A case study in Turkey by using remote sensing data
.
Environmental Science and Pollution Research
30
,
5688
–
5699
.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-22566-z
Google Scholar
Crossref
Search ADS
PubMed
 
© 2024 The Authors
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Licence (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0), which permits copying and redistribution for non-commercial purposes with no derivatives, provided the original work is properly cited (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).