Due to the rapid urbanization and expansion of cities, many urban waters, such as canals and streams, have disappeared from the surface in metropolitan areas like Dhaka. Identifying the potential socioeconomic and ecological value of these long-lost urban waters, particularly to ensure urban resilience, efforts to restore these streams are being emphasized as a prevalent practice in green-blue infrastructure design. The Begunbari Canal was strategically interconnected to the eastern fringe, central, and western parts of Dhaka and served as a crucial outlet for drainage and stormwater, making it geographically and environmentally vital for the city. This study intends to restore the Begunbari Canal of Central Dhaka by de-culverting it and to assess the restoration criteria for this particular ‘canal daylighting’ initiative. It has been conducted as a mixed-method research approach through historical and contextual analysis, map regression, thematic analysis, experts' opinions, transect walks, and photographic documentation to explore the criteria and possibilities for resurfacing the Begunbari Canal. Findings reveal the possibilities of resurrecting the forgotten presence of this buried canal, indicating a set of guidelines for its resurfacing. These insights will benefit policymakers, urban planners, urban designers, and local citizens to regenerate a green-blue network for interconnectivity and communication.

  • Identification of the strategies for the feasibility studies to resurrect a buried urban canal in a developing country.

  • Development of a set of evaluation criteria to analyze an urban canal daylighting.

  • Investigation of canal daylighting criteria in the Dhaka context.

  • Determination of a method for quantitatively assessing the potential for canal daylighting.

  • Recommendations for an urban canal daylighting of Dhaka.

The fast-paced development of cities throughout the globe has drastically altered the natural landscapes, often resulting in the loss of vital urban waters like streams and canals (Winiwarter et al. 2016). These transformations have destroyed natural ecosystems and weakened the ecological balance and urban resilience of cities like Dhaka, Bangladesh (Ahmed et al. 2019). Once an essential part of drainage and stormwater management systems, urban waters are now causing environmental and infrastructural challenges due to their burying, culverting, or paving over (Novotny 2008). The notion of ‘canal daylighting’, which involves the excavation and restoration of these buried watercourses, has surfaced as a crucial tactic in the design of green-blue infrastructure (GBI), providing a means to alleviate these challenges (Wantzen et al. 2022). An example of the plight of urban watercourses is the Begunbari Canal, which was once an important waterway in Dhaka (Ferdous & Nilufar 2007). As a crucial outlet for the city's drainage and stormwater, the strategically located Begunbari Canal has long been an integral component of environmental management, interconnecting the city's eastern, central, and western parts (Datta & Ahmed 2019). Unfortunately, the steady loss of this natural feature has been caused by the city's fast urbanization and infrastructure development, which has had a devastating effect on the local ecology and made the central city more susceptible to flooding and waterlogging (Mowla 2013). The objective of this research is to develop restoration guidelines and evaluate the restoration criteria for the Begunbari Canal as part of an extensive ‘canal daylighting’ initiative. By utilizing a mixed-methods research strategy, the study explores the historical significance and present condition of the canal and pertinent restoration guidelines. The study also includes historical and contextual analysis of the site, map regression, expert opinions, transect walks, photographic documentation, and land use pattern analysis. Reviving the Begunbari Canal is part of this study's larger goal of making Dhaka a more resilient city by regenerating a green-blue network that promotes communication and interconnection and by bringing back an important part of the city's urban landscape.

Canal daylighting and restoration challenges

The process of canal daylighting entails resurfacing watercourses that have been submerged or culverted (Wantzen et al. 2022). This practice has become more popular in urban design and development in recent years as cities strive to restore and rejuvenate their natural water systems (Sabbion 2023). Several examples of successful daylighting initiatives are observed throughout the globe that not only restore the natural function of waterways but also ensure significant social and economic benefits (Branković & Marković 2021; Menon & Sharma 2022). South Korea's Cheonggyecheon Stream restoration is a notable example of unearthing a previously buried urban stream and converting it into a lively public area, substantially improving the city's environmental quality and urban esthetics (Jeon & Kang 2019). The daylighting of the Saw Mill River in Yonkers, New York, USA, improved flood management, biodiversity, and urban redevelopment, leading to significant societal and environmental advantages (Usher et al. 2021). Daylighting initiatives are highly regarded for the several advantages they provide; ecological benefits include water quality improvement, habitat restoration, and biodiversity enhancement (Molnar 2023), as well as socioeconomic benefits that include property value boost, local economic stimulation through tourism and recreation, and improved urban quality of life (Wantzen et al. 2022). Additionally, locals tend to have a greater feeling of ownership and stewardship for daylighting projects when actively involved (Thawer 2022). Community involvement throughout these daylighting projects' design and execution improves the long-term viability and success of restored urban waters by making sure they cater to the needs and preferences of the general public (Pinto & Kondolf 2020).

Though canal daylighting has obvious advantages, several challenges must be tackled for it to be effectively implemented. As cited by Moses (2003), the goals and process of the restoration are dictated by several physical, social, political, and economic considerations. Similarly, Koshaley (2009) outlined four criteria – technical, institutional, ecological, and urban economics and politics – for evaluating the feasibility of daylighting urban streams. For the Dhaka context, this research structures these restoration criteria into four groups: physical context, technical considerations, political considerations, and societal considerations (Figure 1). The physical context includes the site context, physical and ecological features of streams, and the current state of culverts (Piednoir 2021). The technical considerations include the technical challenge, which indicates the complexity of land use for uncovering, land acquisition, and restoring streams in heavily populated metropolitan areas (İdali Özden 2020), and economic considerations which indicate the demand for a significant financial investment (Scoggins et al. 2022). In addition, societal and political challenges arise when different stakeholders, such as local government agencies, private sectors, and local communities, have to coordinate such projects (Moses 2003). The societal challenges include the support and resistance of the community, whereas political challenges include local laws, regulations, and policy guidelines, as well as project initiatives by local authorities that support canal restoration (Piednoir 2021). To achieve effective canal restoration, it is essential to possess a comprehensive understanding of the historical, social, and environmental context of the urban streams.
Figure 1

Restoration criteria for analyzing the feasibility of canal daylighting in Dhaka.

Figure 1

Restoration criteria for analyzing the feasibility of canal daylighting in Dhaka.

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Importance of Begunbari canal in Dhaka context

Dhaka, a rapidly expanding megacity, is confronted with major issues stemming from urbanization, such as urban flooding, pollution, and the depletion of natural habitats (Swapan et al. 2017). According to British Surgeon James Taylor's account of his 1824 tour to Dacca, the city was likened to the ‘Venice of the Orient’ due to the intricate network of canals (Taylor 1840), which led to its six peripheral rivers (Fatemi et al. 2020). Presently, with only 12 of its original 54 canals remaining, Dhaka is a reminder of its vanishing history as a city with more than 50 canals in the past that might have served as drainage systems and contributed to ecological balance (Saif 2023). Moreover, those 54 canals of Dhaka are divided into seven jurisdictions: Dhaka Water Supply and Sewerage Authority for 19 canals of the western part of Dhaka, National Housing Authority for 5 canals, Dhaka City Corporation for 2, Deputy Commissioner's Office for 17 canals of the eastern part of Dhaka, and Bangladesh Water Development Board for 11 canals of the Dhaka–Narayanganj–Demra dam area (Kamol 2009). Hence, the lack of effective collaborations among these government agencies and the complexities of bureaucracy consistently pose significant obstacles to safeguarding these canals from encroachment. Over the last 80 years, continuing encroachment, rapid urbanization, and insufficient maintenance by local government agencies have caused the city to lose 120 km or 307 hectares of canals (Roy 2024). Correspondingly, the Begunbari Canal, which was an integral part of Central Dhaka's drainage system in the past, has been completely forgotten and buried under the extensive urban development of the city (Mowla 2013). Numerous researchers have pointed out the challenges with urban flood and stormwater management that would result from developing Panthapath Road by culverting the Begunbari Canal (Figure 2), which links Dhanmondi Lake on the west with the Hatirjeel-Begunari water channel on the east (Israt 2012; Shajahan & Nilufar 2013; Mandal et al. 2021). The restoration of this canal as part of a daylighting project might help the city improve its GBI and address some of its most serious environmental challenges (Rahman 2020). Research on Dhaka's urban water management has shown that integrating natural water bodies into the urban landscape is key to making it more sustainable and resilient (Feilberg & Mark 2016). These objectives align with the possible restoration of the Begunbari Canal, which can strengthen the city's urban resilience by reviving its natural water systems.
Figure 2

Current state of Panthapath Road by culverting the Begunbari Canal.

Figure 2

Current state of Panthapath Road by culverting the Begunbari Canal.

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Research design

This research includes a diverse array of methodologies, such as historical and contextual analysis, map regression, expert opinions, thematic analysis, transect walks, land use analysis, and photographic documentation. As Suriya & Mudgal (2012) cited, daylighting initiatives' feasibility and possible effect may be better understood through historical and contextual study, combined with contemporary approaches like historical map regression, experts' opinions, and thematic analysis. Other research methodologies such as land use analysis, transect walks, and photographic documentation are required to completely understand the present-day setting of the Begunbari Canal and its surroundings.

Data collection and analysis

Using several historical maps (Figure 3), the research looked at how the area around Begunbari Canal has changed and what remains from its past. The range of time segments is 64 years. Based on the data source, the data was divided into four time segments:
  • (i) T1: Dacca City Map 1960 by A. R. Quraishi; collected from Department of Architecture, BUET

  • (ii) T2: Dhaka Guide Map 1987 by M. Mahbubul Karim; collected from Department of Urban and Regional Planning, BUET

  • (iii) T3: Dhaka Guide Map 2001 by Surveyor General of Bangladesh; collected from Department of Architecture, BUET

  • (iv) T4: Dhaka City Map 2015 by RAJUK (Capital Development Authority); collected from RAJUK Office, Dhaka

Figure 3

Historical traces and transformations of Begunbari Canal and adjacent areas.

Figure 3

Historical traces and transformations of Begunbari Canal and adjacent areas.

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To assess the potential of daylighting the Begunbari Canal in Dhaka, expert interviews were conducted to learn more about their perspectives on the canal's restoration, restoration criteria, and the context in which it may be implemented. Using purposive sampling, eight individuals were selected for the interviews (Table 1). Interviewees came from different backgrounds, including academia, professional practice, and government entities that have a role in urban planning, design, and policymaking.

Table 1

Interviewees' list

IntervieweeAffiliation
AP-1 Professor, Department of Urban and Regional Planning, BUET 
AP-2 Professor, Environmental Engr., Department of Civil Engineering, UAP 
PM-1 Town Planner, RAJUK 
PM-2 Director, Urban Development Directorate, Dhaka 
PM-3 Senior Specialist, Institute of Water Modelling (IWM), Bangladesh 
HW-1 Historian and Writer 
UD-1 Project Coordinator, Dhanmondi, and Hatirjheel Lake Development Project 
UD-2 Member, Technical Committee, Detailed Area Plan 2022–2035 
IntervieweeAffiliation
AP-1 Professor, Department of Urban and Regional Planning, BUET 
AP-2 Professor, Environmental Engr., Department of Civil Engineering, UAP 
PM-1 Town Planner, RAJUK 
PM-2 Director, Urban Development Directorate, Dhaka 
PM-3 Senior Specialist, Institute of Water Modelling (IWM), Bangladesh 
HW-1 Historian and Writer 
UD-1 Project Coordinator, Dhanmondi, and Hatirjheel Lake Development Project 
UD-2 Member, Technical Committee, Detailed Area Plan 2022–2035 

The interview primarily focused on three main topics:

  • (i) The historical background of the inland waterbodies in Dhaka, specifically the Begunbari Canal and its surroundings.

  • (ii) Analyzing the canal restoration criteria for the feasibility of daylighting the canals in Dhaka.

  • (iii) The potential for involving the local community in daylighting the Begunbari Canal.

Consequently, the strategies for Begunbari Canal restoration were analyzed using these historical, spatial, and qualitative data. Later, criteria for restoration activities were established, and policy guidelines for local government agencies and community groups were formulated to support the canal daylighting initiative for Dhaka.

Scoring criteria

Piednoir (2021) suggested a specific way to score each of the criteria related to canal rehabilitation. This analysis system assigns a score from 0 to 2 to each restoration criterion. Criteria for the scores include quantitative data, expert opinion, thematic analysis, and observation through transect walks and photographic documentation. This research presented scoring systems that may be used to quantitatively examine canal restoration procedures for future projects of a similar kind, whereas Piednoir (2021) proposed positive and negative values for these criteria (Table 2).

  • 0 point = Awarded in instances when the value of canal restoration criteria is negative.

  • 1 point = A point is awarded if the value of the canal restoration criterion is positive, but only at a basic level.

  • 2 points = This score is assigned when the canal restoration criterion is specified as a highly positive criterion and has an entirely positive value for restoration.

Table 2

Score of restoration strategies' criteria; adopted and modified from Moses (2003), Koshaley (2009), İdali Özden (2020), Piednoir (2021), Scoggins et al. (2022) 

StrategiesFeaturesTypical criteriaValue and score
210
Physical context Stream Length Long (+) Medium (+) Small (−) 
Flow type Perennial (+) Seasonal (+) No (−) 
Barriers to longitudinal linkage No (+) Few (+) Many (−) 
Linkage to stream network Yes (+) – No (−) 
Sediment proportion Low (+) Medium (+) High (−) 
Watershed Buffer width Large (+) Medium (+) Small (−) 
Imperviousness Low (+) Medium (+) High (−) 
Culvert Length of cover Long (+) Medium (+) Small (−) 
Age Old (+) – New (−) 
Condition Old (+) – New (−) 
Technical considerations Land use and land acquisition Land ownership Public (+) – Private (−) 
Land use typology Green (+) – Urban (−) 
Proximity to the green network Yes (+) – No (−) 
Connection to the sewer system Yes (+) – No (−) 
Financial implication Initial and recurring cost Low (+) Medium (+) High (−) 
Treatment cost Low (+) Medium (+) High (−) 
Depth of overburden Small (+) Medium (+) Long (+) 
Political considerations Laws and policy Laws in favor of restoration Available (+) Not enough (+) No (−) 
Source of funding Available (+) Not enough (+) No (−) 
Common projects Local agencies' initiatives Available (+) Not enough (+) No (−) 
Effect on property value Increased (+) Medium (+) No (−) 
Societal considerations Citizens’ support Benefits of the community Yes (+) – No (−) 
Citizens’ resistance Loss of the community No (+) – Yes (−) 
StrategiesFeaturesTypical criteriaValue and score
210
Physical context Stream Length Long (+) Medium (+) Small (−) 
Flow type Perennial (+) Seasonal (+) No (−) 
Barriers to longitudinal linkage No (+) Few (+) Many (−) 
Linkage to stream network Yes (+) – No (−) 
Sediment proportion Low (+) Medium (+) High (−) 
Watershed Buffer width Large (+) Medium (+) Small (−) 
Imperviousness Low (+) Medium (+) High (−) 
Culvert Length of cover Long (+) Medium (+) Small (−) 
Age Old (+) – New (−) 
Condition Old (+) – New (−) 
Technical considerations Land use and land acquisition Land ownership Public (+) – Private (−) 
Land use typology Green (+) – Urban (−) 
Proximity to the green network Yes (+) – No (−) 
Connection to the sewer system Yes (+) – No (−) 
Financial implication Initial and recurring cost Low (+) Medium (+) High (−) 
Treatment cost Low (+) Medium (+) High (−) 
Depth of overburden Small (+) Medium (+) Long (+) 
Political considerations Laws and policy Laws in favor of restoration Available (+) Not enough (+) No (−) 
Source of funding Available (+) Not enough (+) No (−) 
Common projects Local agencies' initiatives Available (+) Not enough (+) No (−) 
Effect on property value Increased (+) Medium (+) No (−) 
Societal considerations Citizens’ support Benefits of the community Yes (+) – No (−) 
Citizens’ resistance Loss of the community No (+) – Yes (−) 

The maximum potential score is 46. After compiling the percentages of the restoration phase for each case and the overall strategy, the results are standardized: (i) restoring is not recommended if the outcome falls below 50%; (ii) restoring is recommended if the outcome falls below 50.1–75%, and (iii) restoring is strongly recommended if the outcome falls below 75.1–100%.

Historical traces, current state and possible transformations of Begunbari Canal

The Begunbari Khal served as a key passageway from the Mughal dynasty (1608–1764) and performed as the entrance to the city (Ferdous & Nilufar 2007). Historical evidence from 1960 provides similar proof of the existence of the Begunbari Canal, the significant-sized urban waterway that was clearly identifiable and had branches in both the northern and southern neighborhoods (Figure 3). This waterway has the capacity to accommodate 15% of the entire runoff in Dhaka City (Mandal 2019). In 1987, both the north and south branches of the Begunbari Canal disappeared entirely, resulting in a reduction in the canal's overall area (Figure 3). In 1988, a box culvert was built across the section of the Begunbari Canal in this location to create a road named Panthapath, running from east to west.

The respondent, HW-1, stated that:

Begunbari Canal was a significant one that ran from Dhanmondi Lake to Hatirjeel, passing through Rampura before draining into the Balu River. However, land acquisition for the construction of highways, box culverts, or drainage systems affected not just this canal but also the other large and small canals in the city. Due to these development projects, the existing blue network that was once comprised of these canals in Dhaka has disappeared.

Figure 4

Land use of Begunbari Canal and its adjacent areas.

Figure 4

Land use of Begunbari Canal and its adjacent areas.

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Panthapath Road has transformed into one of the city's busy commercial thoroughfares, and the region has become a significant mixed-use district in only a decade (Ferdous & Nilufar 2007). Between 2001 and 2015, the neighboring areas transformed into high-density residential zones, characterized by the construction of multistoried mixed-use structures. These structures included apartments, commercial buildings, offices, and even hospitals (Figure 4). High-rise buildings, predominantly exceeding 10 stories or more, predominate along the Panthapath Roadside, while a few structures of ten or five stories also dot this road's landscape. The respondent, AP-1 corresponded that:

“One may see the effects of rapid urbanization and development boom on the adjacent neighborhoods of Panthapath Road just by its roadside transformations. This once-residential neighborhood has now become a thriving commercial hotspot due to rapid development patterns, brought about by the improved connectivity and accessibility it offers.”

This 1.8-km road serves as a secondary connector between two major routes that pass from north to south across Dhaka City, Kazi Nazrul Islam Avenue (to the east) and Mirpur Road (to the west). It also connects Green Road, another secondary road that diagonally connects Kazi Nazrul Islam Avenue and Mirpur Road, which bisects Panthapath Road. This roadway is typically divided into two lanes (into four lanes near the Green Road–Panthapath Road intersection) by dividers of varied widths; these dividers are occasionally used as planter boxes or occupied as various active zones such as seating areas or tea stalls. The pedestrian level of the footpath is elevated six inches to one foot above the road level. All the buildings are accessible from the footpath level; some even have side entrances for vehicular parking in the basement. The culvert is 4–7 m deep and has 24 pits. It is approximately 36 years old; yet, this specific culverted lake has received regular maintenance.

Land acquisition, land use analysis and financial implication for canal daylighting

The Constitution of the People's Republic of Bangladesh, specifically Article 18a (Act XIV of 2011), declares that the state must make efforts toward environmental protection and development, as well as the preservation and safeguarding of natural resources, biodiversity, wetlands, forests, and wildlife, for the benefit of current and future residents. Consequently, the state or local government agencies in Bangladesh have the authority to modify or redevelop public or government-owned properties to ensure environmental protection and development and also to safeguard wetlands and forests whenever they see fit for the protection of these land uses. Additionally, Article 42(2) (Act XIV of 2011) mandates regarding land acquisition that government, non-government, or semi-government agencies or departments carry out development works for public interest, either on their own lands or in government-taken lands, with a focus on fair and equitable compensation, considering market rates and the land's intrinsic value. Regarding this matter, the Dhaka South City Corporation (DSCC) and the Dhaka North City Corporation (DNCC) embarked on projects to demarcate the canal limits in preparation for its rehabilitation and reconstruction and to create an esthetically pleasing adjacent environment. However, no land acquisition is necessary for Begunbari Canal daylighting; instead, road-design alternatives may be used to rehabilitate the area. The respondent, PM-1, highlighted that:

“While Dhaka South and Dhaka North City Corporations have efficiently restored a few canals, there have been no efforts to resurface the buried lakes, such as the Dholaikhal Canal in Old Dhaka or the Begunbari Canal in Panthapath. However, the recent successful restoration of the Manda Canal and Kalyanpur Canal encouraged us to initiate canal resurfacing initiatives in the next years.”

Until 1991, Panthapath Road connected Hatirjheel Lake and went through Panthakunja, an urban park at its western end; now, this section is likewise box-culverted. Therefore, Begunbari Canal daylighting will link the canal's eastern and western ends to the existing green network of Dhaka (Figure 5). However, toward its eastern end, Bashundhara City Shopping Mall, one of the largest commercial complexes in Southeast Asia, houses a variety of stores, restaurants, movie theaters, fitness facilities, pools, and theme parks. In its western section, several hospitals, including Square Hospital, BRB Hospital, and Samarita Hospital, emerged from 2001 to 2015. Likewise, several retail centers, financial institutions, and mixed-use commercial complexes are common along this roadside (Figure 5) as the peripheral layer of the adjacent neighborhoods. Almost all of the buildings behind this layer are residences, with a few that are mixed-use. Somehow, the sewage system from these houses ended up in this lake.
Figure 5

Panthapath Road and its adjacent areas.

Figure 5

Panthapath Road and its adjacent areas.

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Initially, the box culvert projects on at least four major canals of Dhaka were funded and supported by the World Bank, Asian Development Bank (ADB), and Japan International Cooperation Agency. Despite constructing these massive, continuous box culverts, technical specialists from Dhaka City Corporations have spoken out against their implementation, according to Kamol (2009). Moreover, these box culverts have a high sediment ratio due to their rectangular shape, making them unsuitable during intense stormwater events that occur during rainy seasons. In 2021, a total of 74 tons of solid waste were extracted and cleansed from this culvert to maintain its unobstructed flow (Islam 2021). The respondent, PM-3, agreed that:

“The current culvert's rectangular shape is inefficient for flowing water, and a circular shape could make cleaning the inside easier, as it is not suitable for rectangular structures.”

It is, therefore, possible for government agencies and policymakers to consider reopening these buried canals due to the failed experiments in constructing these box culverts along with their inefficiency and high maintenance costs. Correspondingly, DSCC has recently undertaken a canal development project for 4 canals within its jurisdiction – Jirani, Kalunagar, Manda, and Shyampur, costing 81 million USD (Islam & Saif 2021). The Executive Committee of the National Economic Council has also approved DSCC to spend 345 million USD on a project to restore 29 km of canals, re-excavate those canals, repair their banks, build walkways, and plant greens. Hence, the Dholaikhal Canal in Old Dhaka and the Begunbari Canal in Panthapath will likely be the focus of canal resurfacing initiatives that could be initiated and funded shortly.

The respondent, PM-2, indicated that:

“The World Bank's experiment of box culverting Dhaka's main canals during the late 1980s has died off those waterways and put the adjacent area at risk of waterlogging during the rainy seasons. After 25–30 years, the government agencies have started seeking funds to restore, repair and even resurface those inland waterbodies to revive the long-lost ‘canal network’ and develop Dhaka's ‘urban lifeline’.”

Here, the primary expenses associated with resurfacing these canals include the removal of existing infrastructures, excavating, landscaping, and installing hydraulic structures. On the other hand, continuous maintenance, monitoring of water quality, management of vegetation, and periodic repairs to infrastructure are all included in the recurring expenses. Minimizing disruptions to the local community and ensuring cooperation between all stakeholders involved are other factors that affect these expenses. However, regardless of these expenses, Dhaka must restore and resurface its canals to reduce urban flooding and waterlogging during rainy seasons and make the city livable. The respondent, AP-2, stated that:

“The initial and recurring cost of the canal daylighting may be substantial; however, there are no other options beyond investing in the preservation, maintenance, and restoration of Dhaka's canal networks to improve the city's resilience and make it more habitable.”

Policies and projects of government agencies to support canal daylighting

The country's current legal framework includes the Open Space Act 2000, which prohibits the unauthorized use of any and all open areas, playgrounds, and natural water bodies, whether large or small, in metropolitan cities, divisional towns, and municipal areas. Additionally, the Reservoir Conservation, Restoration, and Fill Control Act (2003), Environmental Protection Act (2010), and Bangladesh Water Act (2013) supported protecting the natural water bodies and wetlands of Bangladesh.

The preservation of inland waterbodies and canal networks has been a key priority of Dhaka's master plans, spanning from the earliest, Dacca City Planning (1917), to the most current, Dhaka Detailed Area Plan (2022–2035). A proposal was put out by Sir Patrick Geddes in Dacca City Planning (1917) to safeguard the canal networks of Dhaka's urbanized region and around 40 km of water channels went into effect (Geddes 1917). Again, Minoprio et al. (1959) suggested the development of continuous and unobstructed water channels in the Dacca Master Plan (1959) by excavating along the natural paths of drainage and where feasible, connecting them with existing canals. Here, one of the recommendations made in the Dhaka Metropolitan Area Integrated Urban Development Plan (1981) was to widen and deepen the existing canals, particularly in the eastern region, to better integrate these natural watercourses. Additionally, the Dhaka Metropolitan Development Plan (1995) called for the preservation of canal networks and their interconnection with peripheral rivers to prevent flooding in the city. Along with that, considering the city's dearth of green space and the esthetic value of its lakes and waterbodies, the Detailed Area Plan (2010–2015) recommended developing these places into recreational areas. Moreover, the Dhaka Structure Plan (2015) proposed the conservation of water bodies as a means to improve the local esthetics, provide recreational opportunities, and maintain green belts along their banks. The most recent Detailed Area Plan (2016–2035) called for the creative construction of a 574 km canal network, known as the ‘Urban Lifelines’, which would link canals and waterbodies to rivers to create a blue network and eliminate any obstacles to water flow. Canal networks as flood prevention infrastructure to channel away overflowing and excess rainwater are also featured in the Stormwater Drainage Master Plan (2016) for Dhaka City. Hence, all of Dhaka's planning documents advocate for policies that safeguard the canal networks, ensure a steady water flow through these inland waterbodies, and foster local esthetics and recreational opportunities alongside these canals.

Nevertheless, the government agencies did not do enough to preserve these inland waterbodies in numerous instances, occasionally sacrificing them for the sake of city development and other times failing to prevent their encroachment by land grabbers. The respondent, UD-2, blamed the local government organizations for being lenient regarding this issue:

“The protection of wetlands and inland waterbodies has been advocated for in every single planning document of Dhaka from 1917 up to the most current Detailed Area Plan (2022–2035). Unfortunately, the previous interconnection of these waterbodies was greatly diminished because we did not take enough measures to prevent the gradual landfilling and encroachment upon those inland waterbodies.”

There is, however, cause for optimism regarding the local government organizations' attempts to restore the canals, given the successful completion of Dhaka's Dhanmondi Lake and Hatirjheel Lake Development Projects. Such lake development projects, in conjunction with the apparent infrastructure developments (i.e. new roads, walkways, and public facilities), generate value-added properties in the surrounding areas (Ghafur 2013; Fatemi 2014). Furthermore, the prime minister of Bangladesh, Sheikh Hasina, recently issued an order to repair all waterways in Dhaka and the adjacent areas, reiterating previous efforts by DNCC and DSCC to clean the canals and demolish illegally built structures on them.

Involvement of local residents in canal restoration efforts

The Dhaka City Neighborhood Upgrading Project, launched in 2018 with World Bank assistance, emphasized how community involvement may improve public spaces in the Dhaka City neighborhood. Community participation is essential for the success of neighborhood upgrading projects such as canal restoration, canal daylighting, and urban green network development. As pointed out by Fatemi (2014), community involvement was crucial at every stage of the Dhanmondi Lake and Hatirjheel Lake Development Projects, from planning and design to execution and operation. The respondent, UD-1, confirmed the value of involving the local community in those projects:

“Every resident should be informed about the government agencies’ plans and how they will benefit them. Citizen feedback and involvement were crucial to the success of urban regeneration and development initiatives such as the Dhanmondi Lake and Hatirjheel Lake Development Projects in Dhaka. During the first one's implementation phase, community interaction was pioneered and carried over to the second one.

Local communities have recently been actively engaged in the task of cleaning the Mohammadpur Canal and Mirpur Paris Canal to maintain a consistent water flow (Islam 2023; Shawon 2024). Therefore, it has been observed in the Bangladesh context that residents are willing to be involved in all stages of neighborhood improvement initiatives, from planning to execution, provided they believe it would benefit their community. However, community resistance may sometimes arise when locals see an initiative as inappropriate for their neighborhood in Dhaka (Antara 2022). In this specific instance, the canal daylighting of Begunbari Canal at Panthapath will be ecologically, environmentally, and socially advantageous to the local population. The respondent, HW-1, endorsed that:

“I actively participated in gathering public opinions as part of feasibility studies in restoring several canals of Dhaka. I found that local citizens, especially the elderly, know the canals’ existence and their role in the city's drainage system, as these canals were once part of a larger network. Accordingly, they always agree to restore the canals, repair their banks and even, resurface them, so that everyone may benefit.”

Assessment of restoration criteria and potentials for Begunbari Canal

Based on the research findings, this part presents the criteria and possibilities for restoring the Begunbari Canal (Table 3).

Table 3

Assessment of restoration criteria for Begunbari Canal in Dhaka

StrategiesFeaturesTypical criteriaCriteria for Begunbari CanalValueScore
Physical context Stream Length 1,800 m Medium (+) 
Flow type Perennial; heavy flow during wet season High (+) 
Barriers to longitudinal linkage Two bridges and three via-ducts Medium (−) 
Linkage to stream network Yes High (+) 
Sediment proportion High; medium during the wet season High (−) 
Watershed Buffer width 15–18 m High (+) 
Imperviousness Low; used as a retention area High (+) 
Culvert Length of cover 1,800 m Medium (+) 
Age 36 years Low (+) 
Condition Old but regularly maintained Medium (+) 
Technical considerations Land use and land acquisition Land ownership Public area; used as vehicular road High (+) 
Land use typology Urban Low (+) 
Proximity to the green network Yes High (+) 
Connection to the sewer system Yes High (+) 
Financial implication Initial and recurring cost Medium; low long-term cost Medium (+) 
Treatment cost Higher treatment costs than restoration costs Medium (+) 
Depth of overburden Small depth; 4–7 m Medium (+) 
Political considerations Laws and policy Laws in favor of restoration Available; DAP 2022–35, DSP 2016–35 High (+) 
Source of funding Available state funding; restoration of four other canals is going on Medium (+) 
Common projects Local agencies’ initiatives Regular canal cleaning, and recently demolished illegal encroached structures Medium (+) 
Effect on property value Increased; i.e.: Dhanmondi and Hatirjheel Development projects etc. High (+) 
Societal considerations Citizens’ support Benefits of the community Yes; the benefits of the community-identified High (+) 
Citizens’ resistance Loss of the community No; loss of the community-identified Low (+) 
The total score of restoration criteria for Begunbari Canal in Dhaka (among a maximum score of 46) 33 
StrategiesFeaturesTypical criteriaCriteria for Begunbari CanalValueScore
Physical context Stream Length 1,800 m Medium (+) 
Flow type Perennial; heavy flow during wet season High (+) 
Barriers to longitudinal linkage Two bridges and three via-ducts Medium (−) 
Linkage to stream network Yes High (+) 
Sediment proportion High; medium during the wet season High (−) 
Watershed Buffer width 15–18 m High (+) 
Imperviousness Low; used as a retention area High (+) 
Culvert Length of cover 1,800 m Medium (+) 
Age 36 years Low (+) 
Condition Old but regularly maintained Medium (+) 
Technical considerations Land use and land acquisition Land ownership Public area; used as vehicular road High (+) 
Land use typology Urban Low (+) 
Proximity to the green network Yes High (+) 
Connection to the sewer system Yes High (+) 
Financial implication Initial and recurring cost Medium; low long-term cost Medium (+) 
Treatment cost Higher treatment costs than restoration costs Medium (+) 
Depth of overburden Small depth; 4–7 m Medium (+) 
Political considerations Laws and policy Laws in favor of restoration Available; DAP 2022–35, DSP 2016–35 High (+) 
Source of funding Available state funding; restoration of four other canals is going on Medium (+) 
Common projects Local agencies’ initiatives Regular canal cleaning, and recently demolished illegal encroached structures Medium (+) 
Effect on property value Increased; i.e.: Dhanmondi and Hatirjheel Development projects etc. High (+) 
Societal considerations Citizens’ support Benefits of the community Yes; the benefits of the community-identified High (+) 
Citizens’ resistance Loss of the community No; loss of the community-identified Low (+) 
The total score of restoration criteria for Begunbari Canal in Dhaka (among a maximum score of 46) 33 

The physical setting of Begunbari Canal indicates that it is a medium-sized canal (1,800 m in length and 15–18 m wide) under the box culvert (Panthapath Road), connected to Dhanmodi Lake at the east and Hatirjheel Lake at the west end, resulting in a steady water flow. This box culvert, constructed in 1988, connects many sewage points and 24 pits, with two intersections (bridges) and three viaducts across Panthapath Road (Figure 6). Thus, this box culvert is 33 years old and is subjected to annual cleaning due to a high sediment ratio. A total of 74 tons of garbage were extracted from the box culvert in 2021, and the tender for this year's cleaning work by the DSCC has also been announced.
Figure 6

Begunbari Canal under the box culvert at Panthapath Road.

Figure 6

Begunbari Canal under the box culvert at Panthapath Road.

Close modal

From the technical standpoint, it is clear that this box culvert serves as an additional link between Mirpur Road and Kazi Nazrul Islam Avenue. Accordingly, no land acquisition is required for Begunbari Canal daylighting, since this site is classified as urban and is used for public purposes. Despite the high initial cost of canal resurfacing, the recurring expenses are likely to be low, making it a financially viable option in the long term.

The political considerations demonstrate that the Constitutional provisions and laws of Bangladesh, and policies of Dhaka are available to restore, repair, and resurface the inland waterbodies and canals in Dhaka, especially buried canals such as Dholai Khal Canal at Old Dhaka and Begunbari Canal at Panthapath. Recently, these kinds of neighborhood development initiatives have been launched in various parts of Dhaka, and these projects get funding from the government and other external organizations like the World Bank and the ADB.

The societal considerations reveal that these development projects have been recognized as very advantageous for the communities, and the presence of these urban amenities has even led to a rise in property value for the surrounding areas. Thus, there has been no evidence of community resistance; rather, citizens partake voluntarily where they can identify themselves as capable of making a meaningful contribution.

The Begunbari Canal in Panthapath has received a score of 33 out of a maximum score of 46, resulting in a percentage of 71% for restoration possibilities (Table 3). For that reason, resurfacing this canal is also suggested through the quantitative evaluation.

The Begunbari Canal restoration through the canal daylighting initiative will demonstrate a unique opportunity to enhance urban resilience and ecological sustainability in Dhaka, Bangladesh. Here, this daylighting initiative might have far-reaching socioeconomic impacts, including the development of new public places for recreational activities, an increase in property values in adjacent areas, and a general improvement in the quality of life for local citizens. Jeon & Kang (2019) found a comparable effect in the Cheonggyecheon Restoration Project in South Korea, where the project achieved significant success by boosting the resilience of the ecosystem while simultaneously improving locals' quality of life through the development of a valuable urban green space. Again, active community involvement in the restoration process promotes social cohesion and empowers inhabitants, cultivating a feeling of ownership and accountability for the canal's maintenance. With this initiative in place, the canal restoration will be tailored to the community's needs and preferences, greatly improving its chances of long-term success. García (2017) indicated that involving local residents and valuing their input enables fostering community stewardship, which in turn facilitates the City Creek Restoration in the Euclid area. Moreover, from an ecological perspective, the daylighting initiative for the Begunbari Canal will enhance biodiversity, restore natural habitats, and revitalize the city's green-blue infrastructure. It will function as a natural drainage system, effectively mitigating the effects of urban floods and alleviating the current stormwater load. Resurfaced streams that may be interlinked with the network will also function as ‘urban lifelines’, as mentioned in the Detailed Area Plan 2022–2035. In increasingly urbanizing cities like Dhaka, these ecological advantages are vital for sustaining environmental health and enhancing biodiversity.

However, notwithstanding these potential benefits, it is necessary to overcome numerous challenges that may arise to ensure the effective implementation of the canal daylighting effort. Piednoir (2021) used the case of Tours, a French city, to illustrate the widespread lack of awareness of buried streams, which is likely prevalent in many places worldwide. Wantzen et al. (2022) demonstrated that three urban streams in Tours have been located and their historical evolution was verified by integrating old maps and historical literature. Using a comparable approach, this research determines where the Begunbari Canal is located and argues that the canal needs to be resurfaced to make Dhaka City more resilient and environmentally sustainable. Here, a huge challenge to completing such a large-scale development project in a developing nation, such as Bangladesh, is getting the necessary funds and assistance from policymakers and various government entities. Conradin & Buchli (2004) found that policymakers' openness to embracing new concepts allowed the Zurich Stream day-lighting project a huge success. The additional challenge arises due to the high initial expenses involved in demolishing the box culverts, excavating canals with appropriate width, repairing canal banks, and designing landscapes along the canal banks. Moreover, it is crucial to anticipate and budget for the recurring expenses after resurfacing, associated with maintenance and monitoring, to avoid the deterioration of the canal. The complex urban landscape of Dhaka, characterized by its dense population and widespread informal settlements, presents an additional challenge in terms of project implementation and maintenance with minimal disturbance to the adjacent community. Nevertheless, this research demonstrates how the canal restoration criteria proposed by Piednoir (2021) can be adapted to the Begunbari Canal daylighting context in Dhaka and shows the method for quantitatively assessing the potential for canal daylighting.

The Begunbari Canal daylighting offers a groundbreaking opportunity for Dhaka by strengthening the community's socioeconomic foundation, increasing ecological well-being, and making its urban infrastructure more resilient. Although this initiative poses significant challenges, a well-planned and comprehensive strategy may successfully overcome these obstacles. Conducting thorough feasibility studies and planning inclusive schemes is essential for minimizing interruptions and optimizing resource allocation. Coherent and long-lasting outcomes can be achieved by integrating such canal restoration projects into broader city development plans. Government agencies need to engage in collaboration with external organizations, corporate sectors, and even non-governmental organizations to get financial assistance. Active community involvement, such as volunteer programs and advisory groups that encourage fostering local stewardship and addressing people's needs, is essential to the project's long-term survival. Developing strong frameworks for monitoring and evaluation systems that involve the community may help track the progress, evaluate the environmental impacts, and ensure the achievement of restoration objectives, therefore enabling essential modifications to this daylighting project. Thus, by overcoming the above-mentioned challenges, the Begunbari Canal daylighting may act as an exemplar for sustainable urban development in Dhaka, Bangladesh, and other comparable contexts globally.

All relevant data are included in the paper or its Supplementary Information.

The authors declare there is no conflict.

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