Estimating stream flow has a substantial financial influence, because this can be of assistance in water resources management and provides safety from scarcity of water and conceivable flood destruction. Four common statistical methods, namely, Normal, Gumbel max, Log-Pearson III (LP III), and Gen. extreme value method are employed for 10, 20, 30, 35, 40, 50, 60, 70, 75, 100, 150 years to forecast stream flow. Monthly flow data from four stations on Mahanadi River, in Eastern Central India, namely, Rampur, Sundargarh, Jondhra, and Basantpur, are used in the study. Results show that Gumbel max gives better flow discharge value than the Normal, LP III, and Gen. extreme value methods for all four gauge stations. Estimated flood values for Rampur, Sundargarh, Jondhra, and Basantpur stations are 372.361 m3/sec, 530.415 m3/sec, 2,133.888 m3/sec, and 3,836.22 m3/sec, respectively, considering Gumbel max. Goodness-of-fit tests for four statistical distribution techniques applied in the present study are also evaluated using Kolmogorov–Smirov, Anderson–Darling, Chi-squared tests at critical value 0.05 for the four proposed gauge stations. Goodness-of-fit test results show that Gen. extreme value gives best results at Rampur, Sundergarh, and Jondhra gauge stations followed by LP III, whereas LP III is the best fit for Basantpur, followed by Gen. extreme value.

  • Four statistical methods, Normal Distribution, Gumbel Distribution, Log Pearson Type III and Extreme Distribution method, are employed to forecast stream flow up to 150 years.

  • Goodness-of-fit tests for the above four statistical methods were also used to find out the rank of data series at 5% significance level.

  • Confidence band in the sense of maximum flow discharge is evaluated up to 95% of confidence limit.

  • Sensitivity of all physical parameters is also discussed for the four statistical methods.

  • Hydrological data are discussed through various statistical indices.

Consistent and precise stream flow forecasting is needed for numerous issues such as water resources planning, strategy improvement, maneuver and upkeep events. In water management, forecasting high-quality stream flow and effective usage of this estimate gives substantial financial and communal assistance. For the hydrologic constituent, there is the requirement of interim as well as enduring events of stream flow forecasting for optimizing systems or for planning future growth or drop. Interim forecasting denotes hourly or day-to-day forecasting, which is vital for caution against flood and safety, and enduring forecasting is on the basis of monthly, seasonal or annual timescales which is very beneficial in reservoir processes and irrigation administration choices like distributing water to consumers downstream, arranging discharges, famine extenuation and handling river agreements or applying compacted acquiescence.

Masmoudi & Habaieb (1993) developed seven statistical channeling models, which were used on the Medjerdah River (Tunisia) to forecast dangerous flood occurrences. Model performance is described by statistical measures of accuracy, ultimate fault, and ultimate interruption among the measured and predicted flow with their alterations. Evensen (1994) discussed a novel chronological data integration technique based on predicting error statistics utilizing Monte Carlo procedures which served as a superior alternative to solve customary and computationally enormous challenging estimated error covariance equations utilized in extended Kalman filter. Bartholmes & Todini (2005) studied the possibility of extending flood predicting lag times equal to 10 days by engaging an amalgamation of innovative climatological and hydrological models and presented outcomes of the joined approach among a numerical weather forecast system and rainfall-runoff model. Griffis & Stedinger (2007) explored features of LP III distribution in real and log space. Assessments with outlines of US flood data revealed that LP III distribution offers a sensible model for yearly flood sequence distribution from unfettered catchments for log space skews. Moreover, for LP III distribution relations of L-moment ratio were established so as to compare them to overall statistics of a province. Rowinski et al. (2002) discussed two probability density functions, prevalent in hydrological studies, i.e., Log-Gumbel and Log-Logistic, with regard to use of the functions to hydrological numbers and problems ensuing from their mathematical properties. The maximum likelihood method promises merging of the estimators away from the area of reality of the two L-moments. Rath et al. (2018) employed the autoregressive integrated moving average (ARIMA) model to predict flow discharge at Mahanadi River basin. Helsel & Hirsch (1992) discussed probabilistic approaches usually accomplished in hydrology. Gumbel max value and LP III distribution are considered to be the best prevalent probabilistic models related to solving water resources problems. Kamal et al. (2017) applied statistical distribution on discharge data for two locations and discovered that Log-normal is applicable for Haridwar and Gumbel EV1 for Garhmukteshwar. Subsequent to finding an appropriate distribution for a region, the distribution helps in predicting discharge for a certain return period. Brandimarte & Di Baldassarre (2012) proposed another method on the basis of applicability of uncertain flood profile to estimate uncertainty in hydraulic modeling and FFA, where the major considerable uncertainty sources are clearly scrutinized. Ewemoje & Ewemooje (2011) investigated Normal, Lognormal, and LP III distributions to model at-site annual peak flood flow in Ogun-Oshun River, Nigeria. Chen et al. (2012) analyzed the risk of flooding resulting from the occurrence of flood, taking into consideration flood enormity and time of incidence applying LP III and mixed von Mises distribution. Mukherjee (2013) developed a mathematical model regarding peak flood discharge and return period utilizing GEV. Bezak et al. (2014) explored the influence of threshold value in the peaks-over-threshold method on FFA results, compared different statistical distribution functions and evaluated three parameter estimation techniques. Haddad & Rahman (2011a) investigated the usability of the quantile regression method as a feasible regional FFA technique for New South Wales, Australia. Haddad & Rahman (2011b) examined flood data from Tasmania, Australia considering an assortment of models' criteria: Akaike information criterion (AIC), AIC-second order variant, Bayesian IC, and a customized ADC. Results obtained by simulating the Monte Carlo model shows that ADC is better at recognizing parent allocation fittingly. Grimaldi & Serinaldi (2006) modeled trivariate joint distribution of flood peak, volume, and duration using a class of copulas called asymmetric Archimedean copulas. Hirabayashi et al. (2013) presented universal flood hazard for this century on the basis of results obtained from climate models and employed a condition of skill for the universal stream steering model with a barrage system for computing river discharge and flood area. Haddad & Rahman (2012) proposed a model utilizing Bayesian generalized least squares regression in an authoritative area structure for RFFA of ungauged watersheds in eastern Australia. Yue (2001) investigated the usability of a two variable gamma model comprising five constraints to describe combined probability actions of multiple variable flood occurrences. Reis & Stedinger (2005) explored Bayesian Markov chain Monte Carlo techniques to evaluate subsequent circulation of flood magnitude, flood menace, and constraints of Log-normal and LP III distributions. Subyani (2011) quantified hydro-geological distinctiveness and probability of flood occurrence of several main valleys in western Saudi Arabia by applying GEV and LP III distributions to peak daily precipitation data. Sraj et al. (2015) examined 58 flood occurrences at Litija station on Sava River, Slovenia applying different bivariate copulas and contrasted them utilizing various arithmetic, graphic, and higher extremity reliance experiments. Merz & Thieken (2005) explored the difference between natural and epistemic uncertainty in FFA. Ouarda et al. (2001) projected an apparent theoretical framework for application of canonical correlations in RFFA using data from 106 stations in Ontario province, Canada. Micevski et al. (2015) presented a substitute RFFA technique that is predominantly valuable when adequately harmonized areas cannot be recognized on the basis of region of influence. Sahoo et al. (2020) studied bivariate low flow frequency analysis of Mahanadi basin, which has major deviations in hydrological performance from upstream to downstream, for two main low flow characteristics. Parhi (2018) estimated peak floods at Mahanadi River at the Hirakud dam and Naraj of up to 100 years' recurrence interval utilizing HEC-RAS and Gumbel's distribution. Pawar & Hire (2018) applied LP III distribution for flood data of four locations on the Mahi River and studied peak stream flow frequency and magnitude in the field of flood hydrology. Lima et al. (2016) estimated local and regional GEV distribution for flood frequency analysis of Rio Doce basin, Brazil in a multilevel, hierarchical Bayesian framework, to explicitly model and reduce uncertainties. Bhat et al. (2019) carried out flood frequency analysis of the River Jhelum employing Gumbel and LP-III distributions for simulating future flood discharge scenarios from three positions. Tanaka et al. (2017) examined the impact of river overflow and dam operation of upstream areas on downstream extreme flood frequencies at Yodo River basin combining a flood-inundation model of upstream Kyoto City area with a rainfall-based flood frequency model and accounting for the probability of spatial and temporal rainfall pattern over the basin.

Here, various statistical methods are established for estimation of flow discharge at four gauge stations in Mahanadi River basin, India. Also, goodness of fit is applied for analyzing data sets. Flow discharge is calculated through various confidence limits (up to 95%) and is also discussed here.

Mahanadi (Figure 1) is a major interstate east-flowing river in peninsular India. The river length from the origin to convergence in the Bay of Bengal is 851 km. In Chhattisgarh the river flows for 357 km and the other 494 km is in Odisha. Details of geographical and hydrological details of four gauging stations are shown in Table 1. Four gauge stations, Rampur, Sundargarh, Jondhra, and Basantpur, are considered for our research.

Table 1

Details of geographical and hydrological data for gauge stations

Hydro-meteorological stationLength of record (years)Hydrological
Geographical
MeanSDSkewnessKurtosisMaximum flow dischargeDrainage area (km2)Elevation from MSL (m)
Rampur 29 16,187.16 12,070.06 1.576 2.597 49,857.57 8,348.27 290 
Sundargarh 29 36,514.85 13,998.42 1.276 1.637 74,916.31 9,183.73 243 
Jondhra 29 92,300.91 52,456.69 1.432 2.526 242,549 10,930.43 272 
Basantpur 29 225,305 110,452.4 1.533 3.472 561,700 10,672.87 236 
Hydro-meteorological stationLength of record (years)Hydrological
Geographical
MeanSDSkewnessKurtosisMaximum flow dischargeDrainage area (km2)Elevation from MSL (m)
Rampur 29 16,187.16 12,070.06 1.576 2.597 49,857.57 8,348.27 290 
Sundargarh 29 36,514.85 13,998.42 1.276 1.637 74,916.31 9,183.73 243 
Jondhra 29 92,300.91 52,456.69 1.432 2.526 242,549 10,930.43 272 
Basantpur 29 225,305 110,452.4 1.533 3.472 561,700 10,672.87 236 
Figure 1

Proposed river gauge stations.

Figure 1

Proposed river gauge stations.

Close modal

Generalized extreme value

Generalized extreme value is a continuous probability distribution developed within extreme value theory. It is a combination of Gumbel, Fréchet, and Weibull extreme value distributions and is a bounded distribution of standardized maxima of a series of autonomous and indistinguishable dispersed arbitrary variables. GEV is utilized as an estimate for modeling maxima of lengthy (limited) series of arbitrary variables. Significantly, while using this distribution, the upper bound is unidentified and hence has to be projected; when Weibull is applied, the lower bound is identified as zero.

Frequency factor for GEV distribution is:
(1)
To express T in terms of :
(2)
Predicted discharge () is calculated with the standard normal distribution formula for the different return periods, and expressed as:
(3)
where = predicted discharge, μ = standard mean, σ = standard deviation.

Normal distribution

In statistics, normal distribution is a type of distribution where the data are characterized by a bell-shaped curve. Discrete form and curve location are obtained by mean and standard deviation. As many natural phenomena fit into this, it is a highly significant probability distribution in statistics. This distribution illustrates how variable data are dispersed. The majority of annotations group about a central peak as it is symmetric and the probability is for data to shrink off uniformly in both directions away from the mean. The arithmetic mean of sample x1, x2…..xn typically represented by μ is the sum of the sampled value divided by item number(n):
(4)
For the required return period (T), the probability factor (P) is evaluated in percentage. The conversion formula used to evaluate the probability is given as:
(5)
From the standard normal distribution table, by interpolation, the frequency factor (Kt) is computed based on the different return periods, where frequency factor equals to standard normal deviate (z). Finally, the predicted discharge (Qp) is found using the standard normal distribution formula for the different return periods for the respective seasons:
(6)

Gumbel max

Gumbel is a type of statistical distribution which began from extreme theory. Function in this distribution is unrestrained on whichever side, leading to negative flow calculation. This represents distribution of extreme values, either highest or lowest of samples, used in various distributions and for modeling distribution of peak levels. This is utilized for predicting earthquake, flood, and other natural hazards. It also models operational threat in managing threat and product life which wears out rapidly prior to a certain age. For the required return period (T), abridged variate (Yt) has been assessed by using the formula:
(7)
The abridged mean and abridged standard deviation have been obtained from the Gumbel distribution table for the given sample size (N). Then the frequency factor is estimated using the formula:
(8)
where Kt = frequency factor, Yt = abridged variate, Yn = abridged mean, Sn = abridged standard deviation.
Thus, the predicted discharge (Qp) is computed using the standard normal distribution formula for diverse return period for respective seasons:
(9)

Log-Pearson III

LP III is a statistical method of fitting frequency distribution values for predicting flood at a few sites of a specified river. Frequency distribution is built after calculating data related to statistics at a particular river site. Flood occurrence probability of different densities can be taken out from the curve. This particular method helps in extrapolating event data with return periods ahead of pragmatic occurrence of flood. After finding the actual discharge, we then calculate the natural logarithm of the actual discharges (Z) and find the standard logarithmic mean (μ) and standard logarithmic deviation (σ) of the calculated discharges for the respective seasons:
(10)
Then the coefficient of skewness (Cs) is calculated using the logarithmic discharges (Z) and for the required return period (T), we calculated the probability (P) in percentage, as per the formula:
(11)
From the standard normal distribution table, by interpolation, we calculate the standard normal deviate (z). The frequency factor depends on coefficient of skewness and return period. When Cs = 0, the frequency factor is equal to standard normal deviate z and is calculated as in the case of Normal deviation. When Cs ≠ 0, the frequency factor (Kt) is modified by using the formulae developed by Kite (1977):
(12)
where z= normal deviate
(13)
  • Kt = frequency factor

Now, predicted logarithmic discharge is calculated by using the formula:
(14)
where qp = predicted logarithmic discharge, μ = standard logarithmic mean, σ = standard logarithmic deviation.
Hence, the predicted discharge (Qp) is calculated by taking the antilog of qp:.

Goodness-of-fit test

For a given set of data, whether a certain distribution is fit or not is checked using this test. Quality of fit for the observed data set is ranked through calculation of statistical parameters. Affinity of samples from the expected theoretical probability distribution is assessed. To evaluate null hypothesis, it is applied and discarded if the observed test surpasses the critical value for the constant significance level. Chi-squared, Anderson–Darling (AD) and Kolmogorov–Smirnov (KS) tests are employed here at significance level 0.05.

Kolmogorov–Smirnov test

Discovering whether a sample is from an assumed continuous probability distribution is the main objective of this test. It is on the basis of empirical cumulative distribution functions (CDF), that is:
(15)
The Kolmogorov–Smirnov test statistic (K) is given by prevalent perpendicular difference in hypothetical and experiential CDF:
(16)

Anderson–Darling test

This associates the fit of an observed to an expected CDF, hence giving additional weight to distribution tails compared to previous experiments.
(17)

Chi-squared test

This is applied to find out whether a sample has come from a population with a given distribution. Binned data are applied, and hence the value of the test statistic depends on how data are binned.
(18)
where
  • = observed frequency

  • j = observations' number

  • Expected frequency

  • F = cumulative distribution function
where
  • m= sample size.

Parameters like shape (k,), scale (, and location ( for different distribution methods at the four gauge stations are presented in Table 2. Probability density function (PDF) and the cumulative density function (CDF) graph for respective gauge stations are displayed in Figure 2.

Table 2

Details of distribution fitting parameters for GEV, LP III, Gumbel Max, and Normal method

Sl. no.DistributionParameters
Rampur 
Gen. extreme value k = 0.21516, = 599.29, = 842.82 
Gumbel max  = 784.25, = 896.25 
Log-Pearson III  
Normal  = 1,005.8, = 1,348.9 
Sundargarh 
Gen. extreme value k = 0.1665, = 766.83, = 2,450.5 
Gumbel max  = 909.54, = 2,517.9 
Log-Pearson III  
Normal  = 1,166.5, = 3,042.9 
Jondhra 
Gen. extreme value k = 0.1469, = 2,891.3, = 5,535.6 
Gumbel max  = 3,408.4, = 5,724.4 
Log-Pearson III  
Normal  = 4,371.4, = 7,691.7 
Basantpur 
Gen. extreme value k = 0.1349, = 6,117.9, = 14,310.0 
Gumbel max  = 7,176.6, = 14,633.0 
Log-Pearson III  
Normal  = 9,204.4, = 18775.0 
Sl. no.DistributionParameters
Rampur 
Gen. extreme value k = 0.21516, = 599.29, = 842.82 
Gumbel max  = 784.25, = 896.25 
Log-Pearson III  
Normal  = 1,005.8, = 1,348.9 
Sundargarh 
Gen. extreme value k = 0.1665, = 766.83, = 2,450.5 
Gumbel max  = 909.54, = 2,517.9 
Log-Pearson III  
Normal  = 1,166.5, = 3,042.9 
Jondhra 
Gen. extreme value k = 0.1469, = 2,891.3, = 5,535.6 
Gumbel max  = 3,408.4, = 5,724.4 
Log-Pearson III  
Normal  = 4,371.4, = 7,691.7 
Basantpur 
Gen. extreme value k = 0.1349, = 6,117.9, = 14,310.0 
Gumbel max  = 7,176.6, = 14,633.0 
Log-Pearson III  
Normal  = 9,204.4, = 18775.0 
Figure 2

(a) PDF and (b) CDF for (i) Rampur, (ii) Sundargarh, (iii) Jondhra, and (iv) Basantpur gauge stations.

Figure 2

(a) PDF and (b) CDF for (i) Rampur, (ii) Sundargarh, (iii) Jondhra, and (iv) Basantpur gauge stations.

Close modal

Three goodness-of-fit tests (as presented in the section ‘Goodness-of-fit test’) were used to analyze rainfall data series at the four stations chosen. Test statistics in correspondence to each test were calculated, and hypothesis testing was done at significance level 0.05. For KS, AD, and Chi-squared tests, the tests reject the hypothesis concerning distribution level if the statistics found are more than the critical value 2.5, 0.12555, and 12.592, respectively (Millington et al. 2011). KS, AD and Chi-squared tests were applied in Easy Fit software for selecting the best fit distribution (s) and outcomes obtained are specified in Table 3.

Table 3

Goodness-of-fit test results for (i) Rampur, (ii) Sundargarh, (iii) Jondhra, and (iv) Basantpur gauge stations

Sl. no.DistributionKolmogorov–Smirov (critical value at 0.05 = 0.19458)
Anderson–Darling (critical value at 0.05 = 2.5018)
Chi-squared (critical value at 0.05 = 3.8415)
StatisticRejectRankStatisticRejectRankStatisticRejectRank
Goodness-of-fit test result for Rampur 
Gen. extreme Value 0.09132 No 0.16422 No 0.21782 No 
Gumbel max 0.13533 No 0.37817 No 1.9633 No 
Log-Pearson III 0.11411 No 0.24095 No 0.46307 No 
Normal 0.28707 Yes 1.0013 No 4.87192 Yes 
Goodness-of-fit test result for Sundergarh 
Gen. extreme value 0.1253 No 0.28958 No 2.164 No 
Gumbel max 0.12535 No 0.35893 No 1.0898 No 
Log-Pearson III 0.13375 No 0.28844 No 1.8507 No 
Normal 0.16402 No 0.76682 No 1.5181 No 
Goodness-of-fit test result for Jondhra 
Gen. extreme value 0.13655 No 0.1963 No 3.00264 No 
Gumbel max 0.25327 Yes 3.65089 Yes 7.8113 Yes 
Log-Pearson III 0.10113 No 8.20485 Yes 18.4183 No 
Normal 1.3962 Yes 6.75286 Yes 25.6016 Yes 
Goodness-of-fit test result for Basantpur 
Gen. extreme value 0.11865 No 1.27191 No 3.2324 No 
Gumbel max 0.19128 No 3.29665 Yes 7.49081 Yes 
Log-Pearson III 0.10621 No 0.27077 No 4.4729 No 
Normal 0.25211 Yes 4.34754 Yes 12.709 Yes 
Sl. no.DistributionKolmogorov–Smirov (critical value at 0.05 = 0.19458)
Anderson–Darling (critical value at 0.05 = 2.5018)
Chi-squared (critical value at 0.05 = 3.8415)
StatisticRejectRankStatisticRejectRankStatisticRejectRank
Goodness-of-fit test result for Rampur 
Gen. extreme Value 0.09132 No 0.16422 No 0.21782 No 
Gumbel max 0.13533 No 0.37817 No 1.9633 No 
Log-Pearson III 0.11411 No 0.24095 No 0.46307 No 
Normal 0.28707 Yes 1.0013 No 4.87192 Yes 
Goodness-of-fit test result for Sundergarh 
Gen. extreme value 0.1253 No 0.28958 No 2.164 No 
Gumbel max 0.12535 No 0.35893 No 1.0898 No 
Log-Pearson III 0.13375 No 0.28844 No 1.8507 No 
Normal 0.16402 No 0.76682 No 1.5181 No 
Goodness-of-fit test result for Jondhra 
Gen. extreme value 0.13655 No 0.1963 No 3.00264 No 
Gumbel max 0.25327 Yes 3.65089 Yes 7.8113 Yes 
Log-Pearson III 0.10113 No 8.20485 Yes 18.4183 No 
Normal 1.3962 Yes 6.75286 Yes 25.6016 Yes 
Goodness-of-fit test result for Basantpur 
Gen. extreme value 0.11865 No 1.27191 No 3.2324 No 
Gumbel max 0.19128 No 3.29665 Yes 7.49081 Yes 
Log-Pearson III 0.10621 No 0.27077 No 4.4729 No 
Normal 0.25211 Yes 4.34754 Yes 12.709 Yes 

At Rampur, Sundergarh, and Jondhra gauge stations, extreme value distribution gives best results followed by LP III, whereas LP III is the best fit for Basantpur followed by extreme value. Therefore, extreme value can be utilized to calculate flood return periods for the present study area. The poor ranking of Normal distribution fitted results is perhaps due to its nature. Given that Normal distribution is based on central limit theorem while the data considered in this study (annual maximum) are at the extreme right of all considered distributions, it was expected that normal fit to the data would be least efficient. In addition, it is observed that at Rampur, Jondhra, and Basantpur stations the Chi-squared test correctly rejects normal fit to data as both statistics are related to central limit theorem.

Gen. extreme value

For Rampur watershed, the value of flood calculated during monsoon period ranges between 177.4414 m3/sec to 321.6385 m3/sec for 10 years to 150 years' return period (Table 4). Similarly for Sundargarh estimated flood fluctuates from 304.3543 m3/sec to 471.5889 m3/sec. For Jondhra watershed, designed flood lies within 893.1144 m3/sec to 1,944.325 m3/sec for 10 years to 150 years return period. The magnitude of peak floods with respect to the return period is found to be 2,052.522 m3/sec to 3,372.061 m3/sec for Basantpur watershed. This range is the highest among all seasonal peak floods.

Table 4

Flow discharge with respect to return period at four gauge stations

Return period (year)Discharge (m3/sec)
RampurSundargarhJondhraBasantpur
10 177.4414 304.3543 893.1144 2,052.522 
20 215.091 348.0189 1,056.74 2,397.051 
30 236.7499 373.1381 1,150.87 2,595.25 
35 244.9403 382.6371 1,186.466 2,670.201 
40 252.02 390.8479 1,217.234 2,734.987 
50 263.8245 404.5383 1,268.537 2,843.009 
60 273.4491 415.7006 1,310.366 2,931.083 
70 281.5748 425.1245 1,345.68 3,005.441 
75 285.2086 429.3388 1,361.473 3,038.693 
100 300.3435 446.8917 1,652.899 3,177.191 
150 321.6385 471.5889 1,944.325 3,372.061 
Return period (year)Discharge (m3/sec)
RampurSundargarhJondhraBasantpur
10 177.4414 304.3543 893.1144 2,052.522 
20 215.091 348.0189 1,056.74 2,397.051 
30 236.7499 373.1381 1,150.87 2,595.25 
35 244.9403 382.6371 1,186.466 2,670.201 
40 252.02 390.8479 1,217.234 2,734.987 
50 263.8245 404.5383 1,268.537 2,843.009 
60 273.4491 415.7006 1,310.366 2,931.083 
70 281.5748 425.1245 1,345.68 3,005.441 
75 285.2086 429.3388 1,361.473 3,038.693 
100 300.3435 446.8917 1,652.899 3,177.191 
150 321.6385 471.5889 1,944.325 3,372.061 

Gumbel max

The intended flood value for Rampur watershed lies within 198.8535 m3/sec to 372.361 m3/sec for 10 years to 150 years' return period (Table 5). Correspondingly for Sundargarh, the appraised flood diverges from 329.1873 m3/sec to 530.415 m3/sec. For Jondhra watershed, the premeditated flood lies within 986.1719 m3/sec to 2,133.888 m3/sec for 10 years to 150 years' return period. The magnitude of peak floods with respect to the return period is found to be 2,248.463 m3/sec to 3,836.22 m3/sec for Basantpur watershed.

Table 5

Flow discharge with respect to return period at four gauge stations

Return period (year)Discharge (m3/sec)
RampurSundargarhJondhraBasantpur
10 198.8535 329.1873 986.1719 2,248.463 
20 244.2809 381.8724 1,183.6 2,664.167 
30 270.1493 411.8736 1,296.025 2,900.887 
35 280.2443 423.5814 1,339.898 2,993.265 
40 288.4465 433.094 1,375.544 3,068.323 
50 302.958 449.9239 1,438.612 3,201.117 
60 314.3149 463.0952 1,487.969 3,305.043 
70 324.4099 474.803 1,531.842 3,397.422 
75 328.8264 479.9251 1,551.036 3,437.837 
100 347.1236 501.1455 1,842.462 3,605.273 
150 372.361 530.415 2,133.888 3,836.22 
Return period (year)Discharge (m3/sec)
RampurSundargarhJondhraBasantpur
10 198.8535 329.1873 986.1719 2,248.463 
20 244.2809 381.8724 1,183.6 2,664.167 
30 270.1493 411.8736 1,296.025 2,900.887 
35 280.2443 423.5814 1,339.898 2,993.265 
40 288.4465 433.094 1,375.544 3,068.323 
50 302.958 449.9239 1,438.612 3,201.117 
60 314.3149 463.0952 1,487.969 3,305.043 
70 324.4099 474.803 1,531.842 3,397.422 
75 328.8264 479.9251 1,551.036 3,437.837 
100 347.1236 501.1455 1,842.462 3,605.273 
150 372.361 530.415 2,133.888 3,836.22 

Normal method

For 10 years to 150 years' return period the calculated flood value deviates within 175.76 m3/sec to 255.892 m3/sec for Rampur watershed (Table 6). Consistently for Sundargarh, the assessed flood is from 302.4046 m3/sec to 395.3386 m3/sec. For Jondhra watershed, premeditated flood contrasts within 885.808 m3/sec to 1,234.06 m3/sec for 10 years to 150 years' return period. The enormity of extreme flood with respect to the return period is found to be 2,037.138 m3/sec to 2,770.419 m3/sec for Basantpur watershed.

Table 6

Flow discharge with respect to return period at four gauge stations

Return period (year)Discharge (m3/sec)
RampurSundargarhJondhraBasantpur
10 175.76 302.4046 885.808 2,037.138 
20 200.571 331.1791 993.636 2,264.179 
30 213.312 345.9552 1,049.01 2,380.768 
35 217.335 350.6214 1,066.49 2,417.585 
40 221.358 355.2875 1,083.98 2,454.403 
50 227.393 362.2867 1,110.21 2,509.629 
60 232.758 368.5082 1,133.52 2,558.719 
70 236.781 373.1744 1,151.01 2,595.536 
75 238.793 375.5075 1,159.75 2,613.945 
100 248.985 387.3283 1,204.05 2,707.216 
150 255.892 395.3386 1,234.06 2,770.419 
Return period (year)Discharge (m3/sec)
RampurSundargarhJondhraBasantpur
10 175.76 302.4046 885.808 2,037.138 
20 200.571 331.1791 993.636 2,264.179 
30 213.312 345.9552 1,049.01 2,380.768 
35 217.335 350.6214 1,066.49 2,417.585 
40 221.358 355.2875 1,083.98 2,454.403 
50 227.393 362.2867 1,110.21 2,509.629 
60 232.758 368.5082 1,133.52 2,558.719 
70 236.781 373.1744 1,151.01 2,595.536 
75 238.793 375.5075 1,159.75 2,613.945 
100 248.985 387.3283 1,204.05 2,707.216 
150 255.892 395.3386 1,234.06 2,770.419 

Log-Pearson III

The gauged flood value diverges within 177.4024 m3/sec to 317.6723 m3/sec for 10 years to 150 years' return period for Rampur watershed (Table 7). Reliably for Sundargarh, the projected flood is from 303.5037 m3/sec to 532.3849 m3/sec. For Jondhra watershed, the planned flood contrasts within 897.3183 m3/sec to 2,183.191 m3/sec for 10 years to 150 years' return period. The enormity of extreme flood with respect to the return period is established to be 2,047.682 m3/sec to 3,525.389 m3/sec for Basantpur watershed.

Table 7

Flow discharge with respect to return period at four gauge stations

Return period (year)Discharge (m3/sec)
RampurSundargarhJondhraBasantpur
10 177.4024 303.5037 897.3183 2,047.682 
20 216.9286 357.3192 1,038.848 2,425.163 
30 238.7493 389.9993 1,144.289 2,644.386 
35 245.8349 401.1399 1,192.41 2,717.519 
40 253.0086 412.7043 1,215.78 2,792.611 
50 263.9266 430.8866 1,177.567 2,909.031 
60 273.7815 447.9389 1,367.25 3,016.452 
70 281.2598 461.3095 1,500.813 3,099.53 
75 285.0255 468.1896 1,531.547 3,141.897 
100 304.3574 505.1676 1,818.622 3,365.321 
150 317.6723 532.3849 2,183.191 3,525.389 
Return period (year)Discharge (m3/sec)
RampurSundargarhJondhraBasantpur
10 177.4024 303.5037 897.3183 2,047.682 
20 216.9286 357.3192 1,038.848 2,425.163 
30 238.7493 389.9993 1,144.289 2,644.386 
35 245.8349 401.1399 1,192.41 2,717.519 
40 253.0086 412.7043 1,215.78 2,792.611 
50 263.9266 430.8866 1,177.567 2,909.031 
60 273.7815 447.9389 1,367.25 3,016.452 
70 281.2598 461.3095 1,500.813 3,099.53 
75 285.0255 468.1896 1,531.547 3,141.897 
100 304.3574 505.1676 1,818.622 3,365.321 
150 317.6723 532.3849 2,183.191 3,525.389 

Actual data from 2011 to 2019 are considered here for testing purposes. Comparison graphs of observed and simulated flood discharge for all proposed stations are presented in Figure 3.

Figure 3

Observed versus simulated flood discharge for (i) Rampur, (ii) Sundargarh, (iii) Jondhra, and (iv) Basantpur gauge stations.

Figure 3

Observed versus simulated flood discharge for (i) Rampur, (ii) Sundargarh, (iii) Jondhra, and (iv) Basantpur gauge stations.

Close modal

Confidence band for difference scenario

For a given return period, xT is determined by Gumbel methods which have errors because of limited use of sample data. The confidence interval indicates the limits regarding the calculated value between which the true value can be said to lie with a specific probability based on sampling errors only. Confidence interval of variate bounded by value x1, x2 for a confidence probability c is where function of confidence probability is:

where

  • K = frequency factor given by

  • standard deviation

  • N= sample size

For different values of T, is calculated and shown in Figure 4. Also 95, 90, 85, 80, and 75% confidence limits for various values of T are shown. It is seen that while the confidence probability rises, the confidence interval also increases. Further increase in T causes the confidence band to spread. Thus, Gumbel distribution will give erroneous results if the sample has a value of very much different from 1.14.

Figure 4

Confidence band for monsoon season of gauging stations (a) Rampur, (b) Sundargarh, (c) Jondhra, and (d) Basantpur.

Figure 4

Confidence band for monsoon season of gauging stations (a) Rampur, (b) Sundargarh, (c) Jondhra, and (d) Basantpur.

Close modal

Sensitivity analysis

For the Normal distribution method, the probability factor is dependent on the required return period (T), which is inversely proportional. Frequency factor (Kt) varies with return periods. Predicted discharge (Qp) increases with respect to the increase in required return period, while the probability factor (P) decreases. When the frequency factor increases, predicted discharge increases. Predicted flood increases with regard to the increase in the required return period, while at the same time, frequency factor increases with decrease of standard deviation in the case of the Gen. extreme value method. Predicted flood increases with reference to the increase in the required return period, while at the same time, frequency factor also increases, whereas reduced mean (Yn) and reduced standard deviation (Sn) remain constant for all recurrence intervals; however, reduced variate (Yt) increases in Gumbel max. In LP III, predicted flood increases with an increase in the required return period, while at the same time, the frequency factor also increases, whereas the coefficient of skewness (Cs) and reduced standard deviation remain constant for all recurrence intervals.

In this paper, an effort has been made to forecast discharges at various return periods using statistical methods. Here, four statistical methods are used to predict flow discharge in the Mahanadi River basin, covering four stations. Four statistical distribution methods, namely, Normal, LP III, Gumbel max, and Gen. extreme value method are employed here. Based on the trends of the last 60 years, the maximum and minimum discharges are found at 150 years and 10 years' return period, respectively. The rate of increase of discharge is very high at the initial return periods and then it becomes constant and eventually lower. The shapes of the graphs are common in nature and most of the time they do not intersect with each other. In most of the cases, Gumbel max gives the peak flood discharge and normal distribution contributes to the least discharge. The Gumbel max is the most widely used method to obtain flood discharge as it can be used for infinite sample sizes. The influencing factor of frequency is analyzed on the basis of analysis of the runoff complexity from drainage basins. It is found that flow probability increases at the upstream of Mahanadi, which may be characterized by the underlying surface condition change influenced by human activities and geomorphology changes, and be considered for future scope. In other sections, the purpose of the research is to diminish future flood damage in the river basin. Hence, forecast of flow discharge is a key indication towards hydrological modeling and development for water resources engineering.

All relevant data are included in the paper or its Supplementary Information.

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