Household behavioral intention, environmental habit and attitude related to efficient water management: an empirical analysis on pro-environmental behavior among urban residents Open Access

Human development and the appetite to conquer the world have progressively depended on environmental resources (Amankwaa et al. 2021a; Chapagain et al. 2022; Chuma et al. 2022). In the empirical domain of water-related human development, the integrity of the resource has been undermined, abused and overstretched, thus leading to pollution and scarcity-related problems (Jiang 2009; Gleeson et al. 2012; Schewe et al. 2014; Han et al. 2016; Mekonnen & Hoekstra 2016; Amankwaa et al. 2021b). The reverberations of this crisis have been felt extensively, causing people at all levels of development to either adopt: (1) preventive strategies such as the cessation of pollutants discharge into water bodies, appropriate allocation and efficient consumption of freshwater resources or (2) protective strategies such as the treatment and clean-up of polluted freshwater resources using biological, chemical, and/or physical innovations, aimed at ensuring the sustainability of water resources. While the former strategy may be admirable, the core thesis of this article underscores how households, an important stakeholder of water resources, acknowledge and use freshwater.

The consumption patterns of household water are highly stochastic, often changing considerably between end users. Literature has associated these complexities and diversity to a mosaic of factors such as public environmental concerns and adaptation strategies (Yang et al. 2021); socio-psychological (Shahangian et al. 2021); climate change and geographical location (Slavíkova et al. 2012); socio demographic profiles of occupants (Willis et al. 2013); appliance ownership (Jorgensen et al. 2009; Borg et al. 2012; Pérez-Urdiales & García-Valiñas 2016; Sarpong et al. 2021); and principally, behavior of end users (Gilg & Barr 2006; Dupont & Renzetti 2013; Sarpong et al. 2021). Indeed, differences in behavior of residents could effectuate consumption disparities between households with otherwise comparable characteristics (e.g. income, residential area and number of residence) (Matos et al. 2014). It is therefore imperative that, strategies bent on changes and/or appreciating how behavior influences water consumption propensities, consider understanding the underlying mechanisms that influence behavior. In this respect, strategies to stimulate pro-environmental behavior (PEB) which is grounded on precise knowledge and in the reduction of inefficient consumption of water, could be an effective means through which water consumption behavior could be modified.

The general domain of individual actions that consciously seek to promote the wellbeing of the environment is referred to as pro-environmental behavior and has been defined as ‘behavior that could contribute to the reduction of current environmental burdens’ (Kurisu 2015). These behaviors could be categorized as either private or public (Kurisu 2015), may be undertaken independently or collectively (Jensen 2002; Lee et al. 2014), and to a greater extent, are purposive actions rooted in their own initiative (Ones et al. 2015). Although external factors such as social norms may support or hinder pro-environmental behaviors (Mainieri et al. 1997; Vicente-Molina et al. 2013), acting in ways that benefit the environment is essentially a personal decision and could be shaped by distinctive reasons such as awareness, values, and attitudes (Blok et al. 2015).

The narrow purpose of pro-environmental behavior is the conservation or management of the environment and its resources. In that case, the literature has established that, people who are pro-environmentally conscious about the environment through awareness creation and advanced knowledge acquisition are inclined to take actions toward the wellbeing of the environment and the reduction of environmental loadings (Kurisu 2015). While commendable environmental behavior and environmental understanding are asserted as self-enhancing, particularly when individuals look for environmental knowledge (Zsóka et al. 2013), nevertheless, a school of academics hold that the acquisition or development of environmental knowledge does not necessarily ensure responsible environmental behavior (Bamberg & Möser 2007; Zsóka et al. 2013). These complexities have received significant attention in environmental psychology research, but to the best of our knowledge, particularly in the area of household water consumption, literature is still limited. Moreover, where studies have already been conducted, the relationship between environmental knowledge, awareness, as well as the worth people place on household water consumption behavior and attitudes are rarely highlighted.

The present study, therefore, seeks to evaluate how knowledge shapes pro-environmental behavior among individuals. Also, the interplay between knowledge about water and the environment, efficient water management actions and attitudes toward these actions based on data from survey are analyzed. This paper empirically contributes to the literature on pro-environmental behavior and water-related issues. Moreover, we argue that the results have policy implications, and are useful in the provision of reference for interventions aimed at reducing household water consumption.

Psychological theories particularly the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) is a comprehensive theory used to explain pro-environmental behaviors such as household water use (Ajzen 1985, 1991). The theory raises its argument from the perspective of an individual's perceived behavioral control, the subjective norm of society, and attitude which collectively shapes behavior. Ajzen suggested adding new variables based on research problems and extending the scope of the TPB model by optimizing the path of variables and the structure of the TPB model (Ajzen 1991). Thus, new variables with respect to specific problems have been incorporated into the TPB model in trying to explore the relationship among variables. The inclusion of additional variables such as environmental values, environmental concerns, socio demographic, and environmental knowledge in the TPB model have been identified to have significant contribution on pro-environmental behavior (Trumbo & O'Keefe 2001, 2005; Kim & Han 2010; Chen & Tung 2014; Yadav & Pathak 2016; Sarpong et al. 2021). The inclusion and applicability of environmental values and knowledge to the basic variables of the TPB is open to question considering different research objects. In this study and based on the theory of planned behavior, we introduce the variables of environmental values and environmental knowledge and how they are associated with efficient household water management.

In summer 2019, the formal questionnaire was administered in the city of Zhenjiang, Xuzhou, and Yangzho. Using convenience sampling, questionnaires were distributed to 500 individuals. A pilot study was initially conducted to assess the understandability of questions among the target population and to improve the content validity of the questionnaire. However, no changes were made to the questionnaire after the pilot study because the respondents understood the language and structure of the questionnaire. Before proceeding with the administration and data collection, respondents were first briefed on the purpose of the study, the questionnaires, and how to respond. Further, the questionnaire was distributed to those who agreed to fill it out. After removing outliers and incomplete responses, data from 313 respondents were considered valid for further analysis. There were 215 males (68.69 percent) and 98 females (31.31 percent) among the 313 responses. Despite the fact that women are the primary managers of household water consumption and perform the majority of house chores, the study sample contains a higher proportion of men than women, which is broadly representative of the unequal gender splits in Jiangsu Province. According to Textor (2021), the provincial gender ratio in Jiangsu was 50.77 men to 49.23 women in 2019. The overall age profiles showed that, the majority of the respondents (57.3%) were below 30 years. Respondents in age categories of 30–40 years, 41–50 years, and 51–60 years represented a total percentage of 40.1, 1.9, and 0.3% respectively. As to education, 54.6% of respondents were either enrolled on or have completed a master study. In addition to this, 19.5, 19.2, 1.6, and 1.3% indicated either being enrolled on or have completed a bachelor study, doctoral program, basic and high school, respectively. We recognize through literature that gender (Vicente-Molina et al. 2018), age (Gilg & Barr 2006; Matos et al. 2014), and education (Jorgensen et al. 2009; Millock & Nauges 2010; Meyer 2015) have influence on environmental knowledge, values, awareness, and pro-environmental behavior associated with water management. Though the present study made no effort to establish the links between demographics and pro-environmental behavior as literature has reported on that, we are optimistic that varied views were received from respondents on environmental knowledge and household water consumption.

We recognize that behaviors, attitudes, and habits regarding household water consumption are distinct, and variables measured through the questionnaire are mapped based on whether they represent behaviors, attitudes, or habits (Table 1). In this study, household water consumption behavior can be defined broadly as the actions that residents take when using water in their homes. Attitudes could be described as an expression of a positive or negative evaluation of water resources. According to Ajzen's (1991) TPB, which explains the attitude-behavior relationship, attitudes, along with subjective norms and perceptions of control over behavior, are predictors of intent to behave. Habits also include repeated water consumption actions of the residents to satisfy their desires.

Exploratory factor analysis was based on the matrix of tetrachoric correlations. A principal factor analysis was used in the extraction of the factors. The reason for selecting this method was that it was assumed that factors would not explain the total variance of the data. It was also assumed that factors would be associated, that is, environmental knowledge and value may have influence on pro-environmental behavior, that is, the efficient management of household water consumption. Oblique rotation of the factor loading matrix was used. The number of clusters or factors extracted was based on the eigenvalue greater than 1 (i.e., ⁠). Variables were defined to be associated with a cluster or factor if it had a factor loading of at least 0.4.

The values of a and b under conventional toilet for the most efficient toilet flush is 3.5 GPF, and less efficient toilet flush is 7.0 GPF (Constellation 2019).

The values for a and b used for minimum and maximum gallons of water per minute under conventional shower are 3.5 and 5.5 GPM, respectively (Laura 2018).

Rank correlations of Spearman were obtained to evaluate survey variables related to environmental values and respondents' knowledge of water behavior, attitudes, and habits. Tables 2–4 present the correlations that were considerable at the rate of 1 and 5% and these are explained in the next three sections with reference to the theoretical literature hypotheses.

As brought out by the survey, the majority of respondents (64%), in terms of management, placed an equal premium on the environment and the economy, whereas 23 and 13% gave more importance to the economy and the environment respectively. Howbeit, the correlation established between placing value on the environment and reducing household water consumption showed a positive relationship (Table 2). Nevertheless, there is a paucity of literature associated with the relationship between the worth people place on the environment and their household water consumption behavior and attitudes.

Considering the correlation, individual's pro-environmental behavior is presented as a direct or indirect outcome of high levels of environmental concern expressed prior to a thorough evaluation of the negative and/or positive reactions that might result from the adoption of a behavior (Wester et al. 2015; Han et al. 2017). Though environmental concern may not necessarily reflect action and may have a weaker association with placing value on the environment as argued by Tam & Chan (2017), the results of the present study reinforce findings of Lee et al. (2014) and Bamberg (2003) which suggest that, a higher degree of environmental concern causes a better evaluation and alignment of actions towards the appreciation of the environment as juxtaposed to lower degree of environmental concern in any given situation. In any case, it is likely that an individual must have personal values and norms that resonate challenges an environmental resource tends to face, and the beliefs that actions initiated by the individual can help moderate the possible threat of the environmental resource under consideration (Stern 1999). In view of this, a central desire positively related to pro-environmental action (reducing household water consumption) is brought forth and underpinned on placing premium on the wellbeing on the environment (Stern 2000; Pickett-Baker & Ozaki 2008; Jansson et al. 2010).

Elsewhere, intrinsic and extrinsic motivations are governing reasons for an individual to engage in pro-environmental behavior, in this regard placing value on the environment by way of reducing household water consumption (Osbaldiston & Schott 2012; Frederiks et al. 2015; Boppa et al. 2019). Deci (1971) establishes that intrinsic motivation is relatively organic and it is represented by feelings of personal enjoyment and inner gratification which stimulates action toward a course as opposed to extrinsic motivation which is rather instrumental, and reward driven. While both are important, extrinsic motivation is somewhat short-lived when incentives that motivate individual's pro-environmental behavior are canceled thus, the tendency to idealize intrinsic motivation toward the management of household water will yield consistency and permanent effects.

Responses from the survey pegged 39% of participants at levels of little-to-no knowledge on the availability and quality of China's water resources. While 61% of respondents mentioned that they have a considerable amount of knowledge on the state of China's water resources, 28% of respondents were of the view that, China is in dire need of water and current supplies are insufficient. Nevertheless, 33% of respondents indicated that the state of China's water resource is secured. Further to this, respondents' action to actively reduce household water consumption was positively correlated with two independent variables, i.e. (1) Knowledge of declining freshwater resources in China and (2) Knowledge of limited supplies of uncompromised water quality (Table 3). Also, significant and positive correlations were found considering (3) Knowledge of high demand for clean water supplies against fixing household leaks immediately and (4) Knowledge of how the quality of freshwater supplies has been compromised against the inconveniences in reducing household water consumption (Table 3). By supporting the above variables (declining freshwater resources; limited supplies of uncompromised water quality; and high demand for clean water supplies) with literature as we overlap and bring them into perspective, we identify that the escalating rate at which China's economy and population are growing is threatened by impoverishment, deterioration of the environment and enhanced scarcity, particularly around freshwater resources (Gleick 2009; Jiang 2009; Hu & Cheng 2013; Tao & Xin 2014; Han et al. 2016).

With respect to the former correlation, we begin the discussion by the fundamentals of humans living in a world characterized by scarcity. That is, scarcity permeates every level of society, considering man's insatiable requirements in relation to limited environmental resources. It is for this reason why we are optimistic that, understanding the availability and the supply quality of an environmental resource, particularly water, will not only enhance the development of environmental concern but more importantly, exterminate inefficient consumption. This is reinforced by Davison et al. (2014) assertion that, awareness of a resource's decreasing and supply limitation motivates individuals with constructive and optimistic attitudes to decrease their consumption behavior. The reason may be that, people usually fear a loss more intensely than they covet an equivalent gain (Owen 2007). For instance, it's more troubling to think about losing 80 gallons of freshwater daily allotment than missing out on winning 80 gallons of freshwater supply raffle, especially if you have made plans based on the allotted 80 gallons. Further to this, we consider that, enjoying a limited resource in controlled amounts on a regular and permanent basis is better than consuming it massively in a restricted moment. Overall, respondents are confident that, in reducing household water consumption, the grave freshwater situation in China could be remedied with continuity in supply. This outlook is supported by Roseth (2006) empirical study of community views on water shortage and conservation. The study suggests that management behavior is driven by the motivation of communities not to run out of water.

In addition to reducing household water consumption, increased awareness and knowledge is statistically associated with fixing household leaks immediately (Table 3). Little drops of water from a faulty faucet or pipe fittings have the potential of robbing a home of 15–20 gallons of water each day. If leakage is serious, hundreds of gallons could be wasted. This assertion is supported by a study carried out by the US Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA), which revealed household leaks account for one trillion gallons of water loss each year, which is enough to meet the combined water requirements of Los Angeles, Chicago, and Miami (MPCA 2017). Concerned individuals indicated that, checking faucets, pipes, and toilets for leaks and fixing them immediately includes the many ways household water could be managed efficiently. This pro-environmental behavior (PEB) establishes the degree to which residents understand an environmental issue (high demand for freshwater) and the level of knowledge on environmental action strategies (Shabnam 2013; Van Der Linden 2014; Zheng et al. 2017). This behavior is further elucidated by the value-belief-norm theory which argues that, the penchant to act with pro-environmental intent, in this case, fixing household leaks immediately, is influenced by the value individuals place on freshwater resources (Stern 2000).

Nevertheless, when faced with issues of scarcity, it does not necessarily cause individuals to reduce their consumption, particularly in circumstances where commodity quality is expected, and prices do not reflect the complete supply cost. In light of the latter correlation, the study establishes that, an important precursor that has evoked inconveniences in the reduction of household water consumption, primarily for non-drinking purposes, is how household water quality has been compromised and the dissatisfaction of tap water organoleptic. For this reason, many homes have water filters installed or completely moved to the use of bottled water. Apparently, people have lost confidence in tap water supply and see no reason to reduce their non-drinking water consumption if quality does not reflect value. As Schmitt et al. (2018) argue, in situations like this, a good approach to psychological well-being is that people who are environmentally conscious may regard spending more time, money, or effort on improving water quality as costly and see no incentive to use the resource conservatively. Though these reasons maybe cogent and important, we however submit individuals' decision to be an absence of pro-environmental behavior.

Pro-environmental behavior is associated with moral obligation, perceptual characteristics, strong environmental attitudes, and the belief that the environment together with its resources is worth protecting (Hutcheson & Sofroniou 1999; Barr et al. 2005; Dolnicar & Leisch 2008; Casalo & Escario 2018). An empirical study by Dolnicar et al. (2012) highlighted that, people with pro-environmental behavior and particularly interested in water related issues are likely to overlook their personal gain and manage the limited resource because they feel morally obliged to behave in this way. A related study on household energy conservation behavior in Devon, England, also established that, residents with high premiums and interest in environmental issues were willing to forfeit some level of comfort to undergo conservation as juxtaposed to residents with little-to-no environmental concern (Barr et al. 2005).

The flaw in the concept of benefitting from household water before upholding its integrity is the misapprehension that water is just a commodity and consequent tendency to efficiently allocate consumption pattern is contingent on its quality and organoleptic properties. Prioritizing public information campaigns and transfer of the knowledge that, water baths and feeds all existence irrespective of its condition and quality, could pull cognition away from this concept, and invariably set a balance between consumptive behavior and management requirements, thus, individuals cannot assume that, it is only humans who need water to survive. Further to this, understanding the direct or indirect cost associated with PEB (reducing household water consumption) as an aspect of its entirety is as important as understanding how in essence, PEB is geared toward the personal wellbeing of an individual or society. We are optimistic a shift in behavior and a more lasting and robust effect on household water consumption is possible when environmental concerns and values on efficient water management are more pronounced in retrospect. Spending time, money or efforts on PEB does not necessarily undermine well-being by depriving people of opportunities to spend resources in ways that are more beneficial to themselves.

Knowledge of efficient household water management as established by the study is positively correlated with two variables, representing behaviors such as (1) the adoption of using electrical water efficient appliances and (2) fixing household leaks immediately (Table 4). Also, knowledge of efficient household water management had a positive and significant correlation with two independent variables, representing attitude and habit, respectively: these are (3) replacing shower heads (non-electrical device) with low flow fixtures and (4) reducing my household water use presents me with an opportunity to save money (Table 4).

More recently, a study on the adoption of household energy and water efficient appliances carried out by Dieu-Hang et al. (2017) highlighted two ways that lead to green household behavior, i.e. (1) no-cost or low-cost behavior involving cognitive adjustment, such as switching off the tap while cleaning the teeth and (2) behaviors requiring extra investment, such as implementing efficient household appliances. With respect to extra investment in green household behavior, literature has shown environmental knowledge and concern to have significant bearing on the purchase and implementation of efficient household appliances (Mostafa 2009; Sang & Bekhet 2015; Yadav & Pathak 2016; Li et al. 2019). In this line, individuals with deep-rooted concerns and interest in issues of water are tilted toward the acquisition of significant water management information which positively relate to their decision to make green household purchases. For instance, a study carried out by Martínez-Espineira & García-Valinas (2013) on water saving technologies showed that, in efficiently managing water in Spanish communities, households with better environmental knowledge and positive tendencies towards environmental campaigns were more inclined to invest in water efficient household appliances. In another study, Millock & Nauges (2010) established that, environmental concerns and its involvement had a beneficial and substantial influence on an individual's decision to use water-efficient equipment. Furthermore, Nguyen et al. (2016) stressed that ‘individuals may have favorable attitudes towards a cheap household water appliance and may consider it more affordable’. Nonetheless, they may overcome conflicting motives and buy the more costly but efficient household water appliance because of their values and understanding of pro-environmental issues. From this discussion, it is realistic to assume that, pro-environmental actions drive on the wheels of awareness and knowledge surrounding an environmental issue, thus, public policymakers may want to inform and spur people to action through education and awareness campaigns.

In addition to the likelihood of respondents' fixing their household leaks immediately as explained in the previous section, respondents indicated that, replacing shower heads with low flow fixtures is a virtuous means through which substantial amounts of water could be saved without reducing user's service quality. This pro-environmental behavior follows the assertion that, after an environmentally conscious individual is equipped with environmental knowledge, he or she is preconditioned and compelled to take actions that lead to the resolution of an environmental problem (Kaiser et al. 1999; Hadzigeorgiou et al. 2011; Shabnam 2013; Zheng et al. 2017). Reviewing the existing literature on the installation of efficient shower heads and water efficient fixtures, we identify a kind of undermining effect to pro-environmental behavior which translates in the absence of curtailment behavior (Stewart et al. 2013; Pérez-Urdiales & García-Valiñas 2016). In other words, the validity of water-saving benefits that could translate from the adoption and installation of effective shower heads partially relies on repeated efforts to consume less water. For instance, some individual stake long showers despite retrofitting shower heads with low flow fixtures, consequently, their actual behavior tends to defeat intended behavior of water conservation (Willis et al. 2010; Beal et al. 2013; Stewart et al. 2013). In this respect, a gradual merge of green purchasing behavior (the adoption of efficient water appliances) and curtailment behavior (repetitive efforts in limiting water use frugality) could have a good potential in the reduction, and even elimination, of environmental impact in the later stages of household water consumption. Curtailment behavior has long been established as critical for managing household water consumption in low-income and smaller households, and should thus be prioritized in household water management (Beal et al. 2013).

On monetary benefits, respondents were quick to mention that, reducing their household water consumption could save them money though China's household water supply is underpriced. Simple actions like fixing leaky faucets, to complex actions like replacing older toilets were recognized to help some households in the United State of America to have average annual savings of $35 and $100, respectively (Casey 2016). Similarly, a study on water and energy conservation published by Willis et al. (2010) highlighted that, the 2008/2009 annual water bill report of Australia showed residents in Gold Coast stood the chance of financially delivering a 2009 annual consumption savings of A$69 increasing to A$136 before the close of 2018 by way of installing a water-efficient shower head. In addition to this, and from a practical yet subtle perspective, an individual stands a chance to receive double monetary benefit from the reverse effect from the reduction of household water and energy consumption. For instance, should an individual reduce the time under the shower during cold seasons, he is likely to use less energy to heat water. By this, he saves money both on water and energy.

The first factor (F1) articulates how different behavior to efficiently manage water is linked with each other. In addition, there is a relationship between efficient household water management and valuing the environment (F6) which has been sufficiently discussed under previous sections. The second factor (F2) and fourth factor (F4) had no relationship with any of the factors and they capture the widespread of China's water quality, supply insufficiencies; and how money could be saved through operational maintenance and a reduction in household water consumption respectively. F3 and F5 are relational, with the former taking a position on the environment having equal priority as the environment. F5 however, has two opposing views, which are (1) placing premium on the economy at the expense of the environment or (2) placing value on the environment at the expense of the economy. Though F5 has been extensively discussed in the previous section, a succinct explanation to these contrasting views is that, the people of China with a long history of poverty became particularly concerned with the acquisition of material wealth and thus endorsed the concept of economic development taking precedence over environmental protection even at the expense of water quality (Harris 2006; Webber 2017). Nevertheless, knowledge of environmental issues and their damaging impacts, particularly on water and human health have garnered a group of citizens who have the environment at heart and are willing to change the status quo as observed in this study.

The study recorded 92 respondents who own dishwasher appliance, 253 who own washing machine and 298 who own both toilet and shower devices (Tables 7–10). Majority of electrical and non-electrical water using appliances were in modern state and water efficient. Considering the determinants to own an efficient water-using technology such as the proliferation of water efficient products on the market, level of education, green purchasing behavior, income status, environmental awareness and concern, one reason that could explain our results is that, in China, it is likely that this type of efficient water fixtures are installed by the builder prior to residents occupancy so residents do not directly make the decision to adopt them. In any case, if these devices or appliances are installed, either by builders or residents, a common denominator to this effect other than the determinants mentioned and discussed under subsequent themes is the knowledge of these individuals on efficient household fixtures and water management.

Although the purchase and installation of water-efficient appliances are means through which water could be managed, the purpose of efficient water management could be defeated when consumption behavior becomes extravagant. In this light, and for the usage of dishwasher and washing machine, the former appliance was frequently used on daily basis (51%) while simultaneously, washing partial load (66.3%). In terms of washing machine usage, the opposite was true. Most respondents (66.8%) mentioned using the appliance once a week while washing full load (53.4). The dissimilarities in usage of these electrical appliances stem from the need to clean used dishes after each meal in order not to suffuse homes with stench or bad odor that may possibly arise from the decomposition of food remains on used plates and dishes. Additionally, the small size and composition of an average Chinese family (2–3 individuals per household) gives more meaning to the results, that is, it will take more days to have a full load in the dish washer. It is therefore advisable that the household shops for a dishwasher that matches household size and washing needs. The use of washing machine mostly once a week while washing full load is suggestive of how concerned and well-informed individuals are in cutting down their household water consumption. In addition to this, the result could be attributed to the fact that, Chinese families are smaller in size with just a child or two and may require no extensive washing. In general, large families and families with more children use more water per household (Russel & Fielding 2010).

Considering knowledge and value as a determinant of the installation of efficient water saving shower head or toilet device, our calculations from Equation (3) follows that a substantial amount of water (2,202.2 GPF and 3,937.5 GPM) could be saved on a daily basis. Therefore, ensuring that households are well-informed on their water use relative not only to the installation of efficient flow fixtures or toilet device but the length under the shower and the number of toilet flush is critical in challenging the attitude and behavior of frugal water users.

Water management is becoming increasingly important in all regions, even where water seems abundant. This is because water resources are finite, and continually, they get smaller every year. While water companies tirelessly work to treat and keep daily freshwater supply needs of households by using advanced innovations and technology, major changes are needed in the area of water use. Herein, households as stakeholders of freshwater resources have a significant responsibility to perform, not least because of changing filters, replacing seal, harvesting rainwater or drilling boreholes which commensurate good water treatment and supply.

Our study focused on the primary stage of the development of water user and precisely on the relationship between environmental predisposition and behavior, attitude and habit in water consumption. Here, we established constructive ways and actions individuals who are environmentally predisposed, knowledgeable in water issues, and have values for the environment take to efficiently manage their household water consumption. Adopting actions such as the purchase and installation of efficient household appliances and fixtures; immediate repairs of faucet and plumbing leaks; and holistically undergoing curtailment behavior by way of reducing water consumption were informed means through which household water were efficiently managed by respondents.

Our study concluded by examining the effect of environmental knowledge and values in determining the behavior, habits, and attitudes of residential water consumers. Therefore, we have not evaluated the impact of age, gender, and education on household water management, knowledge or efficiency. Further research should seek to both expand the survey and investigate the latter stage of households which actively participate in the water market with water generation for personal consumption and trade. This work is timely in view of the UN-wide discussion on sustainable development target 6, which seeks to ensure the availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation.

All relevant data are included in the paper or its Supplementary Information.

The authors declare there is no conflict.