Block-level long-term rainfall variability using trend analysis in a state of central India

Rainfall is the key weather element which regulates the hydrological cycle, availability of water resources and crop production. In this study, spatial and temporal variability of rainfall has been investigated on seasonal and annual time scales of the 149 blocks of Chhattisgarh State using 120 years (1901–2020) of rainfall data. Non-parametric, and Theil and Sen's slope estimator were used to identify possible trends and ascertain the variability in the magnitude. The results revealed that there exists a well-marked spatial variability in rainfall over Chhattisgarh on annual and seasonal time scales. Out of 149 blocks, a significant negative rainfall was noticed in 105 blocks. Annual rainfall showed a significant positive trend in a few blocks like Bhopalpattnam, Bijapur, Usur, and Konta. A similar pattern of trend was noticed in the monsoon season. The results of the study demand the urgent need to formulate policies and strategies for water resource management and planning. The blocks which showed the positive rainfall trends can be identified to intensify the cultivation of more water-requiring crops based on the suitability for that region. The findings of this study can be used as valuable information for crop planning, policy-making and preparation of contingency plans.

HIGHLIGHTS

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Significant shift change point identified as 1961, signifying a shift in rainfall patterns.
The monsoon season demonstrated the highest positive trends, contrasting with negative trends in winter during 1901–1961.
Positive trends in the monsoon season persisted, while negative trends continued in the winter during 1962–2020.
The Theil–Sen slope method indicated an overall decline in annual rainfall for most blocks.
The present study highlights the comprehensive micro-level study of the 149 blocks of Chhattisgarh State, and it could be helpful for agro-advisory and policy-making for the state.

Chhattisgarh, GIS, rainfall variability, shift-change-point, trend analysis

INTRODUCTION

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Climate change has aroused serious concerns among human beings for its strong impact on different weather parameters. The spatio-temporal variability of precipitation has caused changes in the frequency and intensity of extreme precipitation events such as floods (Seenu & Jayakumar 2021) and droughts, which have a substantial influence on human life and socio-economic aspects of India (Rao et al. 2020). In a developing country like India, which is an agricultural-based economy, food security and the economy are dependent on water availability. Uncertainty of rainfall creates major problems in crop as well as water resources planning (Singh & Woolhiser 2002; Praskievicz & Chang 2009).

In India, despite recent progress in industrialisation, the soundness of the economy is significantly dependent upon the gross production of agricultural commodities and agriculture is the mainstay of millions of the teeming population with crops pre-dominantly dependent upon natural rainfall. Excepting the southeastern part of the peninsula and Jammu and Kashmir, the southwest monsoon (June–September) is the principal source of rain in the entire country. During the monsoonal period, more than 75% of annual rainfall is received over a major portion of the country. The shortage of water results from uneven distribution of rains, significant gaps between rain events and field water losses rather than from low seasonal or annual rainfall totals. Although the water in the form of precipitation is available freely and right at the site where it is to be used, so tenuous and delicate is the balance between the demand for water by crops and its supply by precipitation that even short-term deficit periods often reduce the production significantly (Gupta et al. 1990).

According to the Central Water Commission (2005), the annual per capita availability of water in India has decreased from 5,177 m³ in 1951 to approximately 1,508 m³ in 2014 and is expected to decrease to approximately 1,465 m³ in 2025. ICAR has already declared that if the annual availability per capita of water goes below 1,000 m³ then India will be a stressed country. India is currently on the verge of being classified as a water-stressed country, which can be avoided by recharging groundwater artificially. This situation necessitates immediate action to plan and implement numerous management programmes to maximise the use of existing water resources (Murty et al. 2014). The homogeneity character of the test reveals the similarity of the data. The homogeneity of the rainfall data can be tested using the Mann–Whitney–Pettitt test (Pettitt 1979), the standard normal homogeneity test or Alexandersson's SNHT test (Alexandersson 1986).

The Mann–Kendall (MK) test, a globally accepted non-parametric test, is frequently used to identify significant trends in time series of hydrological and meteorological data (Kendall 1975; Tabari et al. 2011a, 2011b; Agarwal et al. 2021; Djagbletey et al. 2021; Twahirwa et al. 2023). The MK or modified Mann–Kendall (MMK) test is used to identify the existence and direction of the trend but not the magnitude. In this analysis, Theil–Sen slope estimators have been used to estimate the magnitude of the trend (Theil 1950a, 1950b; Sen 1968). Long-term rainfall data series must be auto-correlated or normalised to find a monotonic positive and negative trend. The trend analysis has been proven to be a useful tool for efficient planning, design and management of water resources because trend-specific hydrology variables like discharge, direct runoff and precipitation offer useful information on the potential for future variables to change trends (Hamilton et al. 2001; Yue & Wang 2004; Dinpashoh et al. 2014). Climate change may cause an increase in the frequency and intensity of extreme precipitation and temperature events, and this impact can be explored using trend analysis (Chandniha et al. 2017a, 2017b). By considering the importance of rainfall distribution and variability, a large number of studies have been conducted in different regions of India in recent times to understand the trend of rainfall using the MK test and Sen's estimator (Singh et al. 2008; Chandniha & Kansal 2016; Chandniha et al. 2017a, 2017b; Tiwari et al. 2019; Malik & Kumar 2020; Deka 2021; Sharma et al. 2021; Bora et al. 2022; Chauhan et al. 2022; Kakkar et al. 2022; Kudnar et al. 2022; Mehta et al. 2022). Trend analysis using long-term data series offers a more accurate and clear idea about rainfall variability. A large number of studies has been conducted around the globe using data sets of more than 100 years (Saini et al. 2020; Bora et al. 2022; Kakkar et al. 2022; Mehta & Yadav 2022a, 2022b). The trend analysis of annual and seasonal rainfall studies can be applied for effective crop planning (Sridhara & Gopakkali 2021; Dharani et al. 2022) and water resource planning (Gebremichael et al. 2014).

Malik & Kumar (2020) investigated spatial and temporal trends of rainfall over the 13 districts of Uttarakhand State using MK, MMK, and Kendall rank correlation (KRC), Theil–Sen's slope (TSS) and simple linear regression (SLR) tests. In all 13 districts of Uttarakhand, a significant negative and positive trend were noticed. A case study was done in the Ghataprabha River Basin of India to analyse the trend of rainfall, rainy days and drought using non-parametric MK. A decreasing trend in rainfall and rainy days was noted and a significant correlation was noticed between rainfall trend and drought trend (Pathak & Dodamani 2020). In Hariyana, overall monsoon season rainfall showed a decreasing trend while the occurrence of light and heavy rainfall intensity categories showed an increasing trend (Chauhan et al. 2022). Linear regression model, Sen's slope, and MK test were used for rainfall trend analysis of lower Shivalik Punjab on monthly, seasonal and annual time scales. As per the study, erratic behaviour and declining trend of rainfall were noticed for all the locations of lower Shivalik (Kaur et al. 2021). As per Sangma et al. (2020), a non-significant increasing trend of rainfall was noticed in Shillong during the annual, southwest monsoon and summer seasons while a non-significant decreasing trend was noticed in the winter season.

The cropping pattern of Chhattisgarh is dependent on rainfall. Despite having relatively good rainfall, Chhattisgarh has experienced frequent droughts in recent years. The average rainfall of Chhattisgarh State is around 1,400 mm and about 80% of the total rainfall is confined to the monsoon season, i.e. from June to September (Meshram et al. 2016). The state's rainfall has an irregular temporal and spatial distribution, and due to this variation in rainfall the agricultural production of the state is affected. Every third year, there is always a threat of drought occurrence due to the erratic distribution of rainfall rather than deficient rains (Chhattisgarh Water Resources Department). Earlier studies have been conducted in Chhattisgarh in the context of rainfall variability analysis. Spatial and temporal variability of rainfall in the Seonath basin, Chhattisgarh, was studied by Chakraborty et al. (2013) using MK, MMK, Spearman's rho (SR), and TSS tests.

The spatial distribution of rainfall is heterogeneous. The distribution of rainfall depends on various factors like topography, vegetation etc, and so rainfall shows a large regional variation (Buytaert et al. 2006). Hence the trend and variability analysis of rainfall at the block level offers micro-level study and it supports site-specific water resources and crop planning. The spatial pattern of rainfall variability can be explored using the inverse distance weighting (IDW) method in ArcGIS software (Patel et al. 2021; Chauhan et al. 2022). IDW is a deterministic method for multivariate interpolation with a known randomly distributed set of points. It can be used to estimate unknown spatial rainfall data based on known data from adjacent sites (Goovaerts 2000; Li & Heap 2008). In view of the above-mentioned facts, the study aims to investigate climatic variability, using a long-term variation of rainfall in different blocks of Chhattisgarh State.

STUDY AREA

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Chhattisgarh State extends for an area of 13.5 million hectares and is located within 17° 41′ N–24°45′ N latitudes and 79° 30′ E–84° 15′ E longitudes (Nema et al. 2018) (Figure 1). The state is a part of central India, surrounded by Madhya Pradesh in the northwest, Uttar Pradesh in the north, Jharkhand in the northeast, Maharashtra in the southwest, Telangana in the south and Odisha in the southeast. The states come under the East Deccan physiographic zone and is divided into three agroclimatic zones, viz. the Chhattisgarh Plains, the Northern Hills of Chhattisgarh and the Bastar Plateau covering 51%, 28%, and 21% of the total geographic area. The state has a tropical hot and humid climate. The average annual rainfall of the state ranges from 1,100 mm to about 1,700 mm and the average annual temperature ranges between 11 and 47 °C. About 45% of the total land area is covered by forest. There are 27 districts and 149 blocks. As per the 2011 census, Chhattisgarh's population is 25.55 million, which accounts for 2.11% of the Indian population.

Figure 1

Location map of the study area (administrative boundary and different blocks of Chhattisgarh State).

Data acquisition

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The daily precipitation data for 120 years (1901–2020) were collected from the India Meteorological Department (IMD) through their website. IMD gridded data was extracted using Python code and daily gridded data having a resolution of 0.25° × 0.25° were obtained. IMD gridded data have been validated with observed data sets of the different agroclimatic zones of Chhattisgarh, i.e. Northern Hills, Chhattisgarh Plains and Bastar Plateau. Hence, the monthly observed and IMD gridded data showed a good agreement between each other. Data masking was done and area-weighted average rainfall for different blocks of Chhattisgarh was generated using the Thiessen polygon approach in the GIS platform.

METHODOLOGY

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In the present study, spatial and temporal variability of rainfall has been investigated in the 149 blocks of Chhattisgarh for 120 years during the period from 1901 to 2020. The daily weighted average rainfall data for the 149 blocks were used in this study. The daily data was segregated into annual and seasonal (winter, pre-monsoon, monsoon, and post-monsoon) time series. The most probable change point was fixed, thereafter trend analysis was performed. The flow chart describing the methodology followed is represented in Figure 2.

Figure 2

Flowchart of methodology.

The following steps were used to carry out the trend analysis of precipitation.

1.
The MK and MMK test was used to detect the trends in time series of rainfall data in annual and seasonal time series (Kendall 1975; Tabari et al. 2011a, 2011b) (detailed method and equations are given in the Supplementary Material).
2.
The standard normal homogeneity test (SNHT) was used for pattern homogeneity and assessed the overall pattern for a given area (van Belle & Hughes 1984) (detailed method and equations are given in the Supplementary Material).
3.
A significant change in the mean of the climatic time series or most probable change year was determined using the Mann–Whitney–Pettitt test (Pettitt 1979) (detailed method and equations are given in the Supplementary Material).
4.
TSS estimator was used to estimate the magnitude of the trend (Theil 1950a, 1950b; Sen 1968).

The slope estimates of N pairs of data are first calculated using the given equation as:

where

and

are data values at time j and k (j > k) respectively.

The median of these N values of Qi is Sen's estimator of slope, which is calculated as:

A positive value of indicates an increasing trend and a negative value indicates a decreasing trend in time series data.

5.
The coefficient of variation (CV) was calculated to measure the spread of data around the mean using the following equation:

Spatial variability is higher when the CV value is higher, and vice versa (Landsea & Gray 1992).

6.
The rainfall spatial maps were created using the inverse distance-weighted (IDW) interpolation technique (Singh & Chowdhury 1986; Lebel et al. 1987) using ArcGIS software.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

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Detection of change point

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The homogeneity of the rainfall data series was tested using SNHT at a 5% level of significance (Alexandersson 1986). H₀ represents the homogeneous series, and H_a represents the heterogeneous series. The change point years in Chhattisgarh using MWP and SNHT tests are shown in Table 1. Considerable change or shift point in series was detected by both Mann–Whitney–Pettitt (MWP) and SNHT tests. It was found that 1961 is the break-point year for the 120-year period as observed from the maximum occurrences in the SNHT and MWP tests.

Table 1

Block-wise values of the Mann–Whitney–Pettitt (MWP) and standard normal homogeneity test (SNHT) for different blocks of Chhattisgarh State during 1901–2020

Station	Pettitt test		SNHT test		Station	Pettitt test		SNHT test		Station	Pettitt test		SNHT test
Station	Year	Hypothesis	Year	Hypothesis	Station	Year	Hypothesis	Year	Hypothesis	Station	Year	Hypothesis	Year	Hypothesis
Balod	1961	H_a	1961	H_a	Durg	1961	H_a	1961	H_o	Mungeli	1964	H_a	1964	H_a
Dondi	1961	H_a	1961	H_a	Patan	1964	H_a	1964	H_a	Pathariya	1964	H_a	1964	H_a
Dondi Luhara	1961	H_a	1961	H_a	Bindranavagarh	1964	H_a	1964	H_a	Narayanpur	1961	H_a	1961	H_a
Gunderdehi	1961	H_a	1961	H_a	Chhura	1964	H_a	1964	H_a	Orchha	1961	H_a	1961	H_o
Gurur	1961	H_a	1961	H_a	Deobhog	1947	H_o	1947	H_o	Baramkela	1961	H_a	1964	H_a
Baloda Bazar	1961	H_a	1961	H_a	Mainpur	1961	H_a	1961	H_a	Gharghoda	1961	H_a	1953	H_a
Bhatapara	1973	H_a	1961	H_a	Rajim	1964	H_a	1964	H_a	Kharsia	1961	H_a	1964	H_a
Bilaigarh	1961	H_a	1961	H_a	Akaltara	1967	H_a	1967	H_a	Lailunga	1953	H_a	1953	H_a
Kasdol	1961	H_a	1961	H_a	Baloda	1988	H_a	1956	H_o	Pusour	1961	H_a	1964	H_a
Palari	1961	H_a	1961	H_a	Champa	1964	H_a	1964	H_a	Raigarh	1961	H_a	1961	H_a
Simga	1973	H_a	1973	H_a	Dabhra	1961	H_a	1964	H_a	Sarangarh	1961	H_a	1964	H_a
Balrampur	1950	H_a	1950	H_a	Jaijaipur	1964	H_a	1964	H_a	Tamnar	1961	H_a	1961	H_a
Rajpur	1950	H_a	1950	H_a	Janjgir	1967	H_a	1967	H_a	Udaipur	1961	H_a	1953	H_a
Ramanujganj	1948	H_a	1948	H_a	Malkharoda	1961	H_a	1964	H_a	Abhanpur	1964	H_a	1964	H_a
Samri (Kusmi)	1961	H_a	1961	H_a	Nawagarh	1961	H_a	1964	H_a	Arang	1964	H_a	1964	H_a
Shankargarh	1950	H_a	1950	H_a	Pamgarh	1961	H_a	1961	H_a	Raipur	1961	H_a	1961	H_a
Wadrafnagar	2001	H_a	1950	H_a	Sakti	1964	H_a	1964	H_a	Tilda	1973	H_a	1964	H_a
Bakavand	1936	H_o	1947	H_o	Bagicha	1952	H_a	1952	H_a	Ambagarh	1961	H_a	1964	H_a
Bastanar	1936	H_a	1961	H_a	Duldula	1998	H_a	1953	H_a	Chhuikhadan	1967	H_a	1964	H_a
Bastar	1936	H_a	1961	H_o	Farsabahar	1950	H_a	1953	H_a	Chhuriya	1961	H_a	1973	H_a
Darbha	1936	H_a	1959	H_o	Jashpur	1999	H_a	1953	H_a	Dongargaon	1973	H_a	1973	H_o
Jagdalpur	1959	H_a	1959	H_o	Kansabel	1953	H_a	1953	H_a	Dongargarh	1973	H_a	1973	H_a
Lohandiguda	1936	H_a	1961	H_a	Kunkuri	1953	H_a	1953	H_a	Khairagarh	1964	H_a	1964	H_a
Tokapal	1936	H_o	1936	H_o	Manora	1952	H_a	1952	H_a	Manpur	1961	H_o	1961	H_o
Bemetara	1964	H_a	1964	H_a	Pathalgaon	1950	H_a	1953	H_a	Mohla	1961	H_o	1961	H_o
Berla	1964	H_a	1964	H_a	Bodla	1975	H_o	1975	H_o	Rajnandgaon	1961	H_a	1961	H_a
Nawagarh	1964	H_a	1964	H_a	Kawardha	1964	H_a	1964	H_o	Chhindgarh	2005	H_a	1947	H_o
Saja	2010	H_o	1949	H_o	Pandariya	1964	H_o	1964	H_o	Konta	1974	H_a	1974	H_a
Thanakhamria	1949	H_a	1949	H_o	Sahaspur Lohara	1964	H_o	1949	H_o	Sukma	2005	H_o	2002	H_a
Bhairamgarh	1909	H_o	1961	H_o	Bade Rajpur	1961	H_a	1964	H_a	Bhaiyathan	1949	H_a	1950	H_a
Bhopalpatnam	1913	H_a	1930	H_a	Farasgaon	1961	H_a	1961	H_a	Oudgi	1952	H_a	1952	H_a
Bijapur	1975	H_a	1975	H_a	Keskal	1961	H_a	1961	H_o	Pratappur	1949	H_a	1950	H_a
Usur	1975	H_a	1975	H_a	Kondagaon	1961	H_a	1961	H_a	Premnagar	1950	H_a	1950	H_a
Bilaspur	1961	H_a	1961	H_a	Makdi	1961	H_a	1961	H_o	Ramanujnagar	1950	H_a	1950	H_a
Bilha	1964	H_a	1964	H_a	Kartala	1961	H_a	1961	H_a	Surajpur	1949	H_a	1949	H_a
Kota	1964	H_a	1964	H_o	Katghora	1988	H_a	1964	H_o	Ambikapur	1961	H_a	1950	H_a
Marwahi	1948	H_o	1948	H_o	Korba	1961	H_a	1961	H_a	Batouli	1953	H_a	1953	H_a
Masturi	1961	H_a	1961	H_a	Pali	1988	H_a	1964	H_o	Lakhanpur	1961	H_a	1950	H_a
Pendra	1998	H_o	1948	H_o	Poundi-Uproda	1988	H_a	1964	H_o	Lundra	1950	H_a	1950	H_a
Pendra Road	1998	H_o	1988	H_o	Baikunthpur	1951	H_a	1951	H_a	Mainpat	1961	H_a	1961	H_a
Takhatpur	1964	H_a	1964	H_a	Bharatpur	1951	H_a	1951	H_a	Sitapur	1961	H_a	1953	H_a
Dantewada	1949	H_a	1949	H_o	Khadganva	1964	H_a	1951	H_a	Udaypur	1961	H_a	1961	H_a
Gidam	1949	H_a	1961	H_a	Manendragarh	1951	H_a	1951	H_a	Antagarh	1961	H_a	1961	H_o
Katekalyan	1936	H_a	1947	H_o	Sonhat	1951	H_a	1951	H_a	Bhanupratappur	1961	H_o	1961	H_o
Kuakonda	1974	H_o	1974	H_o	Bagbahra	1964	H_a	1961	H_a	Charama	1964	H_a	1964	H_a
Dhamtari	1964	H_a	1964	H_a	Basna	1961	H_a	1961	H_a	Durgkondal	1909	H_o	1961	H_o
Kurud	1964	H_a	1964	H_a	Mahasamund	1964	H_a	1964	H_a	Kanker	1961	H_a	1961	H_a
Magarlod	1964	H_a	1964	H_a	Pithora	1961	H_a	1961	H_a	Narharpur	1961	H_a	1964	H_a
Nagri	1964	H_a	1964	H_a	Saraipali	1961	H_a	1961	H_a	Pakhanjur	1905	H_o	1961	H_o
Dhamdha	1961	H_a	1961	H_o	Lormi	1964	H_a	1964	H_o

Station	Pettitt test		SNHT test		Station	Pettitt test		SNHT test		Station	Pettitt test		SNHT test
Station	Year	Hypothesis	Year	Hypothesis	Station	Year	Hypothesis	Year	Hypothesis	Station	Year	Hypothesis	Year	Hypothesis
Balod	1961	H_a	1961	H_a	Durg	1961	H_a	1961	H_o	Mungeli	1964	H_a	1964	H_a
Dondi	1961	H_a	1961	H_a	Patan	1964	H_a	1964	H_a	Pathariya	1964	H_a	1964	H_a
Dondi Luhara	1961	H_a	1961	H_a	Bindranavagarh	1964	H_a	1964	H_a	Narayanpur	1961	H_a	1961	H_a
Gunderdehi	1961	H_a	1961	H_a	Chhura	1964	H_a	1964	H_a	Orchha	1961	H_a	1961	H_o
Gurur	1961	H_a	1961	H_a	Deobhog	1947	H_o	1947	H_o	Baramkela	1961	H_a	1964	H_a
Baloda Bazar	1961	H_a	1961	H_a	Mainpur	1961	H_a	1961	H_a	Gharghoda	1961	H_a	1953	H_a
Bhatapara	1973	H_a	1961	H_a	Rajim	1964	H_a	1964	H_a	Kharsia	1961	H_a	1964	H_a
Bilaigarh	1961	H_a	1961	H_a	Akaltara	1967	H_a	1967	H_a	Lailunga	1953	H_a	1953	H_a
Kasdol	1961	H_a	1961	H_a	Baloda	1988	H_a	1956	H_o	Pusour	1961	H_a	1964	H_a
Palari	1961	H_a	1961	H_a	Champa	1964	H_a	1964	H_a	Raigarh	1961	H_a	1961	H_a
Simga	1973	H_a	1973	H_a	Dabhra	1961	H_a	1964	H_a	Sarangarh	1961	H_a	1964	H_a
Balrampur	1950	H_a	1950	H_a	Jaijaipur	1964	H_a	1964	H_a	Tamnar	1961	H_a	1961	H_a
Rajpur	1950	H_a	1950	H_a	Janjgir	1967	H_a	1967	H_a	Udaipur	1961	H_a	1953	H_a
Ramanujganj	1948	H_a	1948	H_a	Malkharoda	1961	H_a	1964	H_a	Abhanpur	1964	H_a	1964	H_a
Samri (Kusmi)	1961	H_a	1961	H_a	Nawagarh	1961	H_a	1964	H_a	Arang	1964	H_a	1964	H_a
Shankargarh	1950	H_a	1950	H_a	Pamgarh	1961	H_a	1961	H_a	Raipur	1961	H_a	1961	H_a
Wadrafnagar	2001	H_a	1950	H_a	Sakti	1964	H_a	1964	H_a	Tilda	1973	H_a	1964	H_a
Bakavand	1936	H_o	1947	H_o	Bagicha	1952	H_a	1952	H_a	Ambagarh	1961	H_a	1964	H_a
Bastanar	1936	H_a	1961	H_a	Duldula	1998	H_a	1953	H_a	Chhuikhadan	1967	H_a	1964	H_a
Bastar	1936	H_a	1961	H_o	Farsabahar	1950	H_a	1953	H_a	Chhuriya	1961	H_a	1973	H_a
Darbha	1936	H_a	1959	H_o	Jashpur	1999	H_a	1953	H_a	Dongargaon	1973	H_a	1973	H_o
Jagdalpur	1959	H_a	1959	H_o	Kansabel	1953	H_a	1953	H_a	Dongargarh	1973	H_a	1973	H_a
Lohandiguda	1936	H_a	1961	H_a	Kunkuri	1953	H_a	1953	H_a	Khairagarh	1964	H_a	1964	H_a
Tokapal	1936	H_o	1936	H_o	Manora	1952	H_a	1952	H_a	Manpur	1961	H_o	1961	H_o
Bemetara	1964	H_a	1964	H_a	Pathalgaon	1950	H_a	1953	H_a	Mohla	1961	H_o	1961	H_o
Berla	1964	H_a	1964	H_a	Bodla	1975	H_o	1975	H_o	Rajnandgaon	1961	H_a	1961	H_a
Nawagarh	1964	H_a	1964	H_a	Kawardha	1964	H_a	1964	H_o	Chhindgarh	2005	H_a	1947	H_o
Saja	2010	H_o	1949	H_o	Pandariya	1964	H_o	1964	H_o	Konta	1974	H_a	1974	H_a
Thanakhamria	1949	H_a	1949	H_o	Sahaspur Lohara	1964	H_o	1949	H_o	Sukma	2005	H_o	2002	H_a
Bhairamgarh	1909	H_o	1961	H_o	Bade Rajpur	1961	H_a	1964	H_a	Bhaiyathan	1949	H_a	1950	H_a
Bhopalpatnam	1913	H_a	1930	H_a	Farasgaon	1961	H_a	1961	H_a	Oudgi	1952	H_a	1952	H_a
Bijapur	1975	H_a	1975	H_a	Keskal	1961	H_a	1961	H_o	Pratappur	1949	H_a	1950	H_a
Usur	1975	H_a	1975	H_a	Kondagaon	1961	H_a	1961	H_a	Premnagar	1950	H_a	1950	H_a
Bilaspur	1961	H_a	1961	H_a	Makdi	1961	H_a	1961	H_o	Ramanujnagar	1950	H_a	1950	H_a
Bilha	1964	H_a	1964	H_a	Kartala	1961	H_a	1961	H_a	Surajpur	1949	H_a	1949	H_a
Kota	1964	H_a	1964	H_o	Katghora	1988	H_a	1964	H_o	Ambikapur	1961	H_a	1950	H_a
Marwahi	1948	H_o	1948	H_o	Korba	1961	H_a	1961	H_a	Batouli	1953	H_a	1953	H_a
Masturi	1961	H_a	1961	H_a	Pali	1988	H_a	1964	H_o	Lakhanpur	1961	H_a	1950	H_a
Pendra	1998	H_o	1948	H_o	Poundi-Uproda	1988	H_a	1964	H_o	Lundra	1950	H_a	1950	H_a
Pendra Road	1998	H_o	1988	H_o	Baikunthpur	1951	H_a	1951	H_a	Mainpat	1961	H_a	1961	H_a
Takhatpur	1964	H_a	1964	H_a	Bharatpur	1951	H_a	1951	H_a	Sitapur	1961	H_a	1953	H_a
Dantewada	1949	H_a	1949	H_o	Khadganva	1964	H_a	1951	H_a	Udaypur	1961	H_a	1961	H_a
Gidam	1949	H_a	1961	H_a	Manendragarh	1951	H_a	1951	H_a	Antagarh	1961	H_a	1961	H_o
Katekalyan	1936	H_a	1947	H_o	Sonhat	1951	H_a	1951	H_a	Bhanupratappur	1961	H_o	1961	H_o
Kuakonda	1974	H_o	1974	H_o	Bagbahra	1964	H_a	1961	H_a	Charama	1964	H_a	1964	H_a
Dhamtari	1964	H_a	1964	H_a	Basna	1961	H_a	1961	H_a	Durgkondal	1909	H_o	1961	H_o
Kurud	1964	H_a	1964	H_a	Mahasamund	1964	H_a	1964	H_a	Kanker	1961	H_a	1961	H_a
Magarlod	1964	H_a	1964	H_a	Pithora	1961	H_a	1961	H_a	Narharpur	1961	H_a	1964	H_a
Nagri	1964	H_a	1964	H_a	Saraipali	1961	H_a	1961	H_a	Pakhanjur	1905	H_o	1961	H_o
Dhamdha	1961	H_a	1961	H_o	Lormi	1964	H_a	1964	H_o

H_a = heterogeneous, H₀ = homogeneous.

Spatial variation of rainfall

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The variation of different sub-sets of the rainfall from their respective mean values was measured by calculating CV. Using the value of CV, the spatial distribution of the annual and seasonal rainfall variability was mapped using the inverse distance-weighted (IDW) technique as given in Figures 3–5. Annual rainfall variability was highest in the central part of Chhattisgarh Plains. Among the four seasons, the minimum value of CV was noticed during the monsoon season. A similarity in the magnitude and spatial distribution of CV was noticed between annual and monsoon season rainfall indicating that a significant contribution of annual rainfall was received during the monsoon season. Bastar Plateau, showed a greater variability during winter while there was a lesser variability during the post-monsoon season. Northern Hills zone showed a minimum value of rainfall variability during winter and a maximum value of rainfall variability during the post-monsoon season. Annual and seasonal rainfall variability was very evident within the state of Chhattisgarh.

Figure 3

Annual and seasonal variability of rainfall along with trend analysis at 5% of level of significance during 1901–2020 for (a) annual, (b) pre-monsoon, (c) monsoon, (d) post-monsoon and (e) winter time series.

Figure 4

Annual and seasonal variability of rainfall along with trend analysis at 5% of level of significance during 1901–1961 for (a) annual, (b) pre-monsoon, (c) monsoon, (d) post-monsoon and (e) winter time series.

Figure 5

Annual and seasonal variability of rainfall along with trend analysis at 5% of level of significance during 1962–2020 for (a) annual, (b) pre-monsoon, (c) monsoon, (d) post-monsoon and (e) winter time series.

Long-term rainfall variability (1901–2020)

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The rainfall variability analysis using CV for Chhattisgarh State during the period 1901–2020 shows that the inter-annual variability of post-monsoon rainfall is greater than that of annual rainfall (Figure 3). Variation of rainfall is lowest for annual (18%) and monsoon (17%) time series. In the other seasons, minimum CV values for rainfall are 41% in pre-monsoon, 60% in post-monsoon and 80% in the winter season. The highest rainfall variability in the annual series is 80% in Baloda. The highest rainfall variabilities in different seasons are: 205% (pre-monsoon) in Durg, 30% (monsoon) in Baloda, 107% (post-monsoon) in Palari and 147% (winter) in Dantewada. Among the three agroclimatic zones, the maximum value of inter-annual rainfall variability during annual, pre-monsoon, monsoon and post-monsoon time series were noticed in the Chhattisgarh Plains zone. During winter, the highest inter-annual variability of rainfall was noticed in the Bastar Plateau and the lowest value was noticed in the northern parts of the Northern Hills zone. For pre-and post-monsoon time series, the lowest variability of rainfall was noticed in the Bastar Plateau.

Rainfall variability before change point (1901–1961)

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The analysis of variability of rainfall in Chhattisgarh State during 1901–1961 using CV showed that variation is lowest for annual and monsoon rainfall (Figure 4). The lowest annual and seasonal values of CV during 1901–1961 are 13.60% (annual), 36.84% (pre-monsoon), 14.92% (monsoon), 59.66% (post-monsoon) and 68.33% (winter). The highest rainfall variability in annual, pre-monsoon, monsoon, post-monsoon and winter seasons is 22.60% (Bijapur), 108.16% (Palari), 23.26% (Bhopalpatanum), 101.50% (Manendragarh) and 143.05% (Chindgarh) respectively. Maximum rainfall variability before the change point was noticed in the southwestern part of the Bastar Plateau and during annual and monsoon time series. Maximum variability of winter rainfall was noticed in the southeastern Bastar Plateau. Maximum variability of rainfall during pre-monsoon and post-monsoon time series was noticed in the Chhattisgarh Plains and Northern Hills zone respectively.

Rainfall variability after change point (1962–2020)

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The analysis of variability of rainfall in Chhattisgarh State between 1962 and 2020 using CV showed that variation is lowest for annual and monsoon rainfall (Figure 5). The lowest values of CV for annual rainfall are 16.32% % in pre-monsoon, 44.63% in monsoon, 15.48% in post-monsoon, 56.91% in post-monsoon and 74.02% in the winter season respectively. The highest annual and seasonal rainfall variabilities are 40.74% (annual) in Baloda, 288.98% (pre-monsoon) in Durg, 40.82% (monsoon) in Baloda, 141.12% (post-monsoon) in Palari and 154.16% (winter) in Bijapur. The maximum rainfall variability for annual, pre-monsoon, monsoon and post-monsoon time series was noticed in Chhattisgarh Plains while in winter a maximum rainfall variability was noticed in Bastar Plateau. The minimum variability of rainfall was noticed in Bastar Plateau during annual, pre-monsoon, monsoon, and post-monsoon time series. Chhattisgarh Plains were noted with the lowest rainfall variability in winter.

The regions identified as having higher inter-annual variability will be more susceptible to more frequent drought and flood (Chandniha et al. 2017a, 2017b).

Trend analysis of rainfall using MK test and MMK test

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A positive Z-statistic value shows an increasing trend while a negative Z-statistic value shows a decreasing trend. During the years 1901–1961 (Table 2), the state had an increasing trend in rainfall, which was then reversed during the years 1962–2020 (Table 2). As per the long-term trend analysis (1901–2020) the state had an increasing trend.

Long-term trend analysis (1901–2020)

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The results of the trend analysis for annual and seasonal rainfall data from 1901 to 2020 are shown in Table 3. In the annual time series, seven stations (MK/MMK) showed a positive trend (either significant or non-significant), among which, the trend was significant in 4/4 stations (Bhopalpattnam, Bijapur, Usur, Konta), and the rest of the stations were seen to show a negative trend (either significant or non-significant) out of which 109/108 stations showed a significant trend. Out of 596 (149 × 4) z-statistic values, nine stations had positive non-significant trends in the pre-monsoon season, and the rest showed negative trends (either significant or non-significant). Among those, 69/68 stations showed significant negative trends. In the monsoon season, 13 stations showed positive trends of which 5/5 stations showed a significant positive trend (Bhopalpattnam, Bijapur, Usur, Kuakonda and Konta), and the rest showed a negative trend (either significant or non-significant). Among these, 92/85 stations showed a significant negative trend. Sixteen stations, had positive non-significant trends during the post-monsoon season, and the rest were negative, of which a significant trend was noticed in Konta station but as per MMK only. In the winter season all stations showed a negative trend (significant and non-significant) of which 102/111 stations showed a significant negative trend.

Trend analysis before change point (1901–1961)

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During the period 1901–1961 (Table 2), 115 stations showed positive trends (significant and non-significant), except at 34 stations, during the monsoon season, of which 29/28 stations showed a significant positive trend while three stations, viz. Dantewada, Gidam and Katekalyan, showed a significant negative trend. For the annual time step, 104 stations showed positive significant trends of which 21/27 stations showed a significant trend while 45 stations showed negative trends (significant and non-significant). In the pre-monsoon season 29 stations showed positive trends (significant and non-significant) among which 2/3 stations showed significant trends (Keskal, Antagarh and Pakhanjur); 120 stations showed negative trends (significant and non-significant) in the pre-monsoon season, of which 3/9 stations showed a significant trend. In the post-monsoon season, 146 stations showed a positive trend (significant and non-significant) of which 8/8 stations showed a significant trend, and the rest are negative trends (significant and non-significant). In the winter season, all stations showed a negative trend (significant and non-significant) among which 12/20 stations showed a significant trend.

Table 2

Block-wise results of trend analysis of monthly and seasonal rainfall using MK/MMK for Chhattisgarh State during 1901–1961 and 1962–2020

Stations	1901–1961					1962–2020
	Annual	Pre-Monsoon	Monsoon	Post-Monsoon	Winter	Annual	Pre-Monsoon	Monsoon	Post-Monsoon	Winter
	MK/MMK	MK/MMK	MK/MMK	MK/MMK	MK/MMK	MK/MMK	MK/MMK	MK/MMK	MK/MMK	MK/MMK
Balod	0.46/0.43	−0.21/−0.25	0.81/0.91	1.55/1.55	−1.57/−1.57	0.40/0.71	2.39**/1.67	0.00/0.00	0.71/0.76	0.48/0.60
Dondi	2.29/2.49	0.65/0.59	2.21/2.21	1.60/1.60	−1.05/−1.05	1.09/1.84	1.69/1.39	0.82/0.82	1.09/1.04	0.33/0.33
Dondi Luhara	2.08/25.45	0.47/0.43	2.04/2.63	1.26/1.26	−1.07/−1.24	1.61/2.43**	3.22/2.60	0.70/1.11	1.00/0.95	1.69/1.69
Gunderdehi	1.45/1.45	−0.07/−0.20	1.46/1.46	1.41/1.41	−1.39/−1.63	0.77/0.71	3.45/2.10	0.17/0.18	0.93/1.61	1.71/1.70
Gurur	0.79/0.79	0.00/0.00	0.83/0.83	1.15/1.15	−1.11/−1.29	−0.04/−0.09	1.64/1.64	−0.49/−0.69	1.00/1.49	0.49/0.44
Baloda Bazar	1.07/1.07	−1.33/−1.84	1.83/1.83	0.69/0.59	−1.28/−1.52	0.03/0.03	1.11/1.16	−0.24/−0.20	0.38/1.13	0.42/0.42
Bhatapara	1.24/1.50	−0.67/−0.67	1.53/1.53	0.91/0.91	−1.34/−1.5	−0.78/−0.78	0.47/0.47	−0.96/−0.96	0.10/0.16	0.07/0.07
Bilaigarh	1.77/1.42	−0.55/−0.55	2.06**/1.65	1.56/1.89	−0.94/−0.94	−0.55/−0.55	0.50/0.52	−0.84/−0.96	−0.24/−0.24	0.05/0.05
Kasdol	1.30/1.30	−1.21/−1.21	1.99**/1.62	1.32/1.32	−1.24/−1.26	0.41/0.41	1.55/1.55	0.15/0.15	0.35/0.35	0.45/0.45
Palari	1.58/1.97**	−0.91/−0.91	1.80/1.80	1.32/1.32	−1.33/−1.61	−0.27/−0.27	1.30/1.80	−0.54/−0.54	0.50/0.66	0.99/0.98
Simga	0.74/0.74	−0.44/−0.44	1.16/1.16	1.37/1.17	−1.88/−2.27*	−1.28/−1.28	−0.07/−0.16	−1.40/−1.40	−0.44/−0.73	0.13/0.13
Balrampur	−0.09/−0.07	−1.09/−1.23	0.14/0.12	0.78/0.78	−0.3.00/−0.33	−1.53/−1.53	1.34/1.34	−1.56/−1.56	−0.35/−0.49	−0.80/−1.05
Rajpur	−0.84/−0.70	−0.68/−0.61	−0.57/−0.57	0.33/0.34	−0.21/−0.23	−1.02/−0.85	1.51/1.51	−1.19/−1.19	0.09/0.12	−0.61/−0.61
Ramanujganj	−0.29/−0.29	−1.14/−1.14	0.00/0.00	0.79/0.79	−0.08/−0.09	−1.65/−1.65	0.63/0.83	−1.36/−1.36	−1.35/−5.18*	−1.21/−1.76
Samri (kusmi)	0.23/0.18	−0.19/−0.16	0.51/0.42	0.78/0.78	−0.59/−0.67	−0.75/−0.75	0.77/0.77	−0.64/−0.64	0.23/0.23	−1.28/−1.28
Shankargarh	−0.58/−0.39	−0.64/−0.87	−0.31/−0.19	0.25/0.27	−0.70/−0.80	−1.16/−1.16	1.32/1.32	−1.21/−1.21	0.56/0.56	−0.66/−0.66
Wadrafnagar	−0.32/−0.32	−0.99/−0.96	0.01/0.01	0.77/0.77	−0.10/−0.11	−1.57/−1.57	1.07/1.07	−1.46/−1.62	−1.07/−2.96*	−1.17/−5.65*
Bakavand	−0.54/−0.62	−0.26/−0.26	−0.81/−0.95	1.49/1.49	−1.44/−1.44	1.78/1.78	−0.58/−0.58	2.73/3.58	0.17/0.17	−2.54/−3.65
Bastanar	−1.28/−1.76	0.19/0.19	−1.25/−1.79	1.62/1.62	−1.42/−1.42	1.74/1.74	0.75/0.64	2.11/2.11	−0.03/−0.03	−1.30/−1.30
Bastar	−0.82/−0.95	0.53/0.53	−1.18/−1.41	1.77/1.77	−1.30/−1.30	1.62/1.62	0.06/0.06	2.71/2.71	0.15/0.15	−1.78/−1.77
Darbha	−0.98/−1.41	0.30/0.30	−1.15/−1.37	1.58/1.58	−1.51/−1.51	2.95/2.95	0.97/1.12	3.36/3.36	0.51/0.51	−1.45/−1.45
Jagdalpur	−0.79/−0.96	0.47/0.47	−1.07/−1.28	1.83/1.83	−1.42/−1.42	2.04/2.04	0.68/0.86	2.78/2.47	−0.23/−0.23	−1.58/−1.58
Lohandiguda	−1.09/−1.10	0.24/0.24	−1.33/−1.88	1.81/1.81	−1.26/−1.26	1.34/1.16	0.30/0.25	2.11/2.11	−0.03/−0.03	−1.14/−1.14
Tokapal	−1.00/−1.47	0.54/0.54	−1.21/−1.81	1.63/1.63	−1.46/−1.46	1.95/1.95	0.84/0.84	2.54/2.54	−0.13/−0.13	−1.43/−1.43
Bemetara	−0.23/−0.23	−0.70/−1.09	0.08/0.08	1.47/1.47	−1.50/−1.82	0.00/0.00	0.31/0.31	0.04/0.04	−0.23/−0.38	0.03/0.03
Berla	−0.23/−0.23	−0.91/−2.41*	0.09/0.09	0.86/0.86	−1.55/−1.83	1.10/1.10	1.13/1.13	1.10/1.10	0.87/1.03	0.82/0.82
Nawagarh	0.87/0.87	−0.77/−0.77	1.06/1.25	1.12/1.12	−1.46/−1.78	−1.13/−1.13	0.46/0.41	−1.54/−1.54	−0.45/−0.48	0.33/0.38
Saja	0.91/0.91	−0.51/−0.60	1.06/1.06	0.92/0.92	−1.30/−1.52	2.39/2.81	1.12/0.91	2.41/2.8	0.68/0.82	0.39/0.29
Thanakhamria	0.15/0.15	−0.38/−0.48	0.39/0.39	1.18/1.18	−1.23/−1.49	1.56/1.56	0.43/0.43	1.94/1.94	0.28/0.34	0.02/0.01
Bhairamgarh	2.17/1.98	0.54/0.54	2.01**/1.67	1.83/1.83	−2.30/−2.30	0.83/0.83	−0.35/−0.24	1.23/1.23	−0.31/−0.31	−0.54/−0.54
Bhopalpattnam	3.99/3.99	1.23/1.23	3.78/3.78	1.99/1.99	−2.60/−3.01	1.44/1.44	0.22/0.22	1.65/1.65	−0.37/−0.37	−0.17/−0.17
Bijapur	3.48/3.48	0.36/0.36	3.55/3.07	1.52/1.52	−2.44/−2.44	1.05/1.05	0.11/0.11	1.09/0.92	−0.65/−0.65	−0.51/−0.5
Usur	3.37/3.37	−0.26/−0.26	3.63/3.63	1.11/1.11	−2.34/−2.79	1.75/1.57	1.41/1.90	1.66/1.36	−0.21/−0.19	−0.30/−0.30
Bilaspur	1.35/1.35	−0.52/−0.68	1.80/1.80	0.76/0.76	−0.56/−0.50	−0.38/−0.49	0.97/0.84	−0.82/−1.06	0.00/0.00	0.40/0.72
Bilha	1.60/1.60	−0.58/−1.22	2.43**/1.94	0.44/0.54	−0.56/−0.56	−0.67/−0.67	1.06/0.8	−1.30/−1.30	0.35/0.31	0.12/0.12
Kota	1.37/1.37	−1.44/−2.00*	1.92/1.92	0.63/0.77	−0.69/−0.69	−0.78/−0.96	0.48/0.61	−1.39/−6.21*	−0.05/−0.05	−0.05/−0.04
Marwahi	−0.55/−0.55	−1.62/−1.62	−0.03/−0.02	0.25/0.25	−0.48/−0.48	−1.29/−1.69	0.88/0.94	−1.65/−1.65	−0.13/−0.21	−0.21/−0.19
Masturi	1.09/1.09	−0.73/−0.97	1.80/1.43	0.47/0.47	−0.96/−0.87	−0.18/−0.32	0.92/0.79	−0.75/−1.29	0.05/0.05	0.35/0.45
Pendra	−0.49/−0.49	−1.58/−1.58	−0.01/−0.02	0.21/0.21	−0.44/−0.44	−1.23/−1.52	0.42/0.42	−1.83/−3.85*	−0.18/−0.18	−0.28/−0.23
Pendra Road	0.64/0.64	−1.05/−1.49	1.34/1.39	0.73/0.73	−0.47/−0.47	−1.04/−1.25	0.89/0.96	−1.88/−2.77*	−0.36/−0.46	−0.45/−0.37
Takhatpur	1.94/2.22**	−0.93/−1.10	2.21/2.51	0.40/0.50	−0.60/−0.60	−0.72/−0.72	1.58/1.58	−1.40/−1.40	0.39/0.37	0.37/0.37
Dantewada	−1.26/−1.17	−0.84/−0.84	−1.19/−3.76*	1.62/1.62	−1.85/−1.85	1.32/1.32	0.45/0.34	1.88/2.18**	−0.22/−0.22	−1.14/−0.90
Gidam	−1.51/−1.39	−0.70/−0.70	−1.49/−4.10*	1.60/1.60	−1.47/−1.47	0.84/0.84	0.21/0.13	1.70/1.70	−0.42/−0.42	−0.99/−0.79
Katekalyan	−1.30/−1.49	−0.46/−0.46	−1.16/−2.94*	1.54/1.54	−2.09/−2.09*	2.94/2.94	0.78/0.84	3.21/3.21	0.75/0.75	−1.74/−1.39
Kuakonda	0.33/0.41	−0.67/−0.67	0.63/1.29	1.15/1.15	−2.80/−2.80	2.64/2.64	0.86/0.70	2.55/2.87	0.72/0.92	−1.35/−1.07
Dhamtari	1.01/1.30	−0.19/−0.20	1.09/1.09	1.15/1.15	−1.34/−1.44	−0.26/−0.46	0.82/0.82	−0.57/−0.57	1.00/1.05	0.32/0.27
Kurud	1.04/1.04	−0.07/−0.06	1.44/1.44	1.09/0.92	−1.16/−1.49	−1.25/−1.25	−0.27/−0.27	−1.02/−1.02	0.20/0.22	0.29/0.35
Magarlod	1.48/1.78	−0.38/−0.33	1.62/1.90	1.07/0.94	−1.74/−2.29*	−1.29/−1.29	−1.33/−1.69	−0.83/−0.83	0.05/0.07	−0.67/−0.67
Nagri	1.72/2.24**	−0.60/−0.60	1.93/2.39**	1.21/1.28	−1.65/−1.79	−1.36/−1.93	−1.12/−1.27	−1.20/−1.20	0.35/0.80	−0.96/−0.96
Dhamdha	0.69/0.69	−0.56/−0.87	0.81/0.81	0.79/0.79	−1.40/−1.64	1.89/1.68	1.28/0.90	1.41/1.41	0.97/1.60	0.77/0.77
Durg	1.23/1.23	−0.21/−0.31	1.37/1.37	1.09/1.09	−1.53/−1.82	1.04/1.04	1.85/0.73	0.35/0.35	0.60/1.13	1.34/1.34
Patan	0.94/0.94	−0.27/−0.28	1.11/1.11	0.91/0.91	−1.42/−1.70	−0.67/−0.67	0.61/0.80	−0.95/−0.95	0.31/0.33	1.16/1.16
Bindranavagarh	1.30/1.52	−1.24/−1.24	1.58/2.12**	1.05/1.10	−2.01/−2.17	−0.27/−0.27	−1.32/−1.84	−0.22/−0.22	0.45/0.43	−1.30/−1.30
Chhura	1.12/0.97	−1.25/−4.39*	1.52/1.52	1.25/1.25	−1.83/−2.15*	−0.10/−0.10	−1.00/−0.97	−0.15/−0.15	0.25/0.24	−0.74/−0.74
Deobhog	−0.42/−0.42	−2.35/−2.84	0.58/0.99	0.83/0.75	−2.19*/−1.80	1.15/1.02	−0.10/−0.15	1.06/0.95	−0.11/−0.11	−0.79/−1.14
Mainpur	−0.03/−0.04	−2.11/−2.11	0.98/1.14	0.93/0.93	−2.27*/−1.93	0.34/0.34	−0.67/−0.81	0.47/0.42	0.39/0.39	−1.49/−1.49
Rajim	0.83/0.68	−1.35/−1.40	1.20/1.18	0.92/0.92	−1.61/−1.89	0.32/0.27	−0.51/−0.51	0.68/0.58	−0.01/−0.01	0.26/0.26
Akaltara	0.88/0.72	−0.45/−0.59	1.29/1.04	0.51/0.51	−0.21/−0.21	−1.25/−1.80	0.31/0.25	−1.86/−2.88*	0.07/0.07	−0.21/−0.28
Baloda	0.45/0.45	−0.75/−0.75	0.95/0.95	0.75/0.75	−1.00/−0.89	−0.82/−0.82	0.56/0.46	−1.05/−1.54	−0.00/−0.00	0.42/0.42
Champa	0.64/0.50	−1.04/−1.04	1.06/0.86	1.08/0.92	−0.92/−1.07	−2.23/−4.75	0.75/0.92	−2.29/−2.29	0.01/0.03	−0.19/−0.19
Dabhra	1.85/6.89**	−0.53/−1.04	2.29/3.33	1.30/1.30	−0.42/−0.42	0.64/0.64	−0.20/−0.24	0.70/0.81	0.55/0.73	0.24/0.24
Jaijaipur	1.48/1.31	−0.88/−0.88	1.64/1.49	1.02/1.02	−0.73/−0.73	−1.07/−1.07	−0.01/−0.01	−1.30/−1.30	0.12/0.12	−0.38/−0.38
Janjgir	0.82/0.67	−0.63/−0.94	1.02/0.84	0.71/0.61	−0.44/−0.44	−1.88/−1.88	0.14/0.15	−2.37/−3.54	0.07/0.08	−0.49/−0.49
Malkharoda	1.63/1.63	−0.83/−1.35	1.87/1.82	1.23/1.23	−0.47/−0.47	−0.54/−0.54	−0.48/−0.51	−0.52/−0.53	0.00/0.00	−0.73/−0.73
Nawagarh	0.82/0.62	−1.08/−1.08	1.53/1.19	0.62/0.53	−0.88/−0.89	−1.14/−1.14	0.38/0.35	−1.49/−1.49	−0.01/−0.01	−0.19/−0.19
Pamgarh	0.84/0.60	−1.17/−1.32	1.42/1.14	0.25/0.21	−0.79/−0.79	−0.44/−0.72	0.68/0.55	−1.01/−1.30	0.10/0.10	−0.10/−0.10
Sakti	0.75/0.76	−0.94/−1.08	1.12/0.86	0.97/0.97	−0.84/−0.85	−1.96/−1.96	−0.38/−0.38	−1.70/−1.70	0.15/0.15	−0.69/−0.69
Bagicha	−0.17/−0.18	−1.18/−1.18	0.49/0.53	0.65/0.70	−0.65/−0.65	−1.53/−2.46*	0.21/0.21	−1.63/−2.11*	0.26/0.35	−0.95/−0.95
Duldula	0.44/0.41	−1.42/−1.42	1.05/1.79	0.75/0.75	−0.44/−0.43	−1.20/−0.98	−0.08/−0.08	−1.47/−1.34	0.23/0.23	−1.13/−1.13
Farsabahar	0.07/0.09	−1.69/−1.69	0.61/0.69	0.76/0.76	−0.74/−0.60	−0.21/−0.21	−0.35/−0.37	−0.32/−0.40	0.06/0.06	−1.34/−1.76
Jashpur	0.49/0.60	−0.58/−0.58	0.72/0.86	0.51/0.51	0.03/0.05	−0.61/−0.76	0.13/0.13	−0.72/−0.72	0.40/0.36	−1.46/−1.46
Kansabel	0.27/0.27	−1.80/−1.80	0.96/1.48	0.84/0.90	−0.74/−0.71	−1.36/−1.36	−0.51/−0.51	−1.30/−1.30	0.03/0.05	−1.28/−1.28
Kunkuri	0.35/0.35	−1.72/−1.72	0.96/1.47	0.79/0.79	−0.50/−0.49	−1.53/−1.69	−0.40/−0.40	−1.52/−1.52	−0.01/−0.01	−1.44/−1.44
Manora	0.67/0.54	−0.49/−0.96	0.73/0.71	0.78/0.93	−0.47/−0.53	−0.12/−0.16	0.27/0.27	0.07/0.09	0.05/0.05	−1.48/−1.48
Pathalgaon	−0.18/−0.21	−1.58/−1.58	0.300/0.33	0.893/0.95	−0.88/−1.01	−0.19/−0.19	−0.18/−0.18	−0.08/−0.08	0.25/0.34	−1.34/−1.15
Bodla	1.71/1.71	−0.38/−0.38	2.04**/1.68	1.19/1.04	−0.61/−0.72	−0.49/−0.49	0.76/0.76	−0.59/−0.69	−0.20/−0.23	0.27/0.26
Kawardha	1.09/1.09	−0.37/−0.43	1.39/1.39	1.32/1.32	−0.70/−0.82	−0.59/−0.70	0.19/0.19	−0.31/−0.31	−0.15/−0.20	0.23/0.20
Pandariya	1.47/1.47	−0.44/−0.67	1.62/1.62	1.14/1.14	−0.36/−0.43	−0.93/−1.12	1.04/1.04	−1.37/−1.68	0.07/0.11	0.21/0.16
Sahaspur Lohara	1.16/1.16	−0.32/−0.28	1.27/1.27	1.39/1.39	−1.29/−1.56	1.39/1.39	0.04/0.05	1.88/1.88	0.17/0.24	−0.26/−0.23
Bade Rajpur	2.69/4.40	1.02/1.02	2.46/5.38	2.04/2.04	−1.08/−1.16	0.34/0.50	1.19/1.13	0.24/0.24	1.39/1.82	−0.11/−0.11
Farasgaon	2.67/3.55	1.73/1.73	2.27/4.44	2.22/2.22	−1.32/−1.32	0.50/0.50	−0.03/−0.03	0.35/0.35	1.14/1.67	−0.17/−0.17
Keskal	3.18/4.65	2.22/2.22	2.16/3.18	2.44/2.44	−0.98/−1.05	−0.08/−0.08	0.77/0.90	0.00/0.00	1.01/1.38	−0.20/−0.20
Kondagaon	−0.15/−0.14	−0.00/−0.00	−0.31/−0.43	1.55/1.71	−1.43/−1.43	0.65/0.57	−0.65/−0.65	1.43/1.43	0.73/0.73	−0.95/−0.95
Makdi	0.79/1.21	−0.73/−0.73	0.77/1.30	1.64/1.64	−1.28/−1.28	1.18/1.18	0.33/0.41	1.26/1.49	1.62/1.62	−1.57/−2.08*
Kartala	0.21/0.21	−1.19/−1.48	0.58/0.77	0.84/0.84	−0.84/−0.75	−1.46/−1.46	0.12/0.12	−1.46/−1.46	0.39/0.39	−0.42/−0.42
Katghora	0.44/0.40	−0.97/−0.87	1.15/1.29	0.98/0.98	−0.91/−0.80	−1.39/−1.72	0.29/0.37	−1.57/−2.78*	−0.01/−0.01	0.05/0.05
Korba	0.28/0.26	−1.32/−1.69	0.51/0.51	0.60/0.60	−0.67/−0.59	−0.89/−1.27	0.10/0.12	−0.89/−1.49	0.44/0.44	0.43/0.37
Pali	1.46/1.34	−0.82/−0.73	1.75/1.93	1.23/1.23	−0.75/−0.67	−1.70/−2.77*	0.27/0.30	−1.71/−2.85*	−0.03/−0.03	0.23/0.27
Poundi-Uproda	−0.13/−0.14	−1.19/−1.19	0.33/0.37	0.76/0.96	−0.74/−0.66	−1.62/−4.13*	0.61/0.74	−2.00/−4.19	0.39/0.39	0.19/0.19
Baikunthpur	−1.94/−1.94	−1.18/−1.43	−1.66/−1.66	0.35/0.43	−0.09/−0.09	−1.46/−1.69	1.30/1.30	−1.67/−1.98*	0.07/0.08	0.27/0.22
Bharatpur	−1.24/−1.24	−0.79/−0.79	−0.91/−0.77	−0.38/−0.34	−0.32/−0.32	0.03/0.03	0.66/0.66	0.05/0.05	0.54/0.54	−0.16/−0.12
Khadganva	−1.23/−1.23	−1.26/−1.48	−1.02/−1.15	0.58/0.69	−0.47/−0.47	−1.23/−1.60	1.33/1.44	−1.89/−2.22*	0.51/0.78	0.42/0.81
Manendragarh	−1.60/−1.60	−1.67/−1.97*	−1.18/−1.18	−0.00/−0.00	−0.53/−0.53	−0.56/−0.56	1.48/1.48	−0.89/−0.89	1.07/1.60	0.47/2.28**
Sonhat	−0.91/−0.91	−1.23/−1.44	−1.10/−1.10	0.45/0.55	−0.44/−0.44	−0.23/−0.28	1.44/1.44	−0.60/−0.73	0.74/0.77	0.33/0.77
Bagbahra	0.68/0.68	−1.91/−4.28*	1.20/1.20	1.18/1.18	−1.93/−2.29*	0.31/0.31	−0.13/−0.14	0.20/0.20	0.56/0.49	−0.32/−0.32
Basna	2.04/2.04	−0.60/−0.60	2.21**/1.82	1.85/2.21**	−1.09/−1.08	−0.07/−0.07	0.01/0.02	−0.24/−0.24	0.07/0.06	0.17/0.17
Mahasamund	1.39/1.39	−1.38/−1.71	1.92/1.92	1.18/1.18	−2.00/−2.20	0.75/0.83	0.38/0.31	0.67/0.67	0.42/0.41	0.53/0.52
Pithora	1.84/1.84	−1.02/−1.36	2.31/2.31	1.64/1.97**	−1.51/−1.54	−0.05/−0.05	0.38/0.34	−0.05/−0.05	0.17/0.17	0.05/0.05
Saraipali	1.85/1.85	−0.33/−0.51	1.95/2.03**	1.96/1.96	−0.92/−0.81	0.89/0.89	0.00/0.00	0.83/0.83	0.28/0.28	0.69/0.99
Lormi	1.94/1.94	−0.88/−1.47	2.27/2.27	0.75/0.75	−0.52/−0.60	−0.49/−0.57	1.20/1.20	−1.14/−1.35	−0.24/−0.23	−0.14/−0.11
Mungeli	1.55/1.55	−0.72/−1.88	1.92/1.92	0.89/0.89	−0.71/−0.84	−1.21/−1.21	0.77/0.77	−1.67/−1.67	−0.02/−0.02	0.33/0.26
Pathariya	1.80/1.80	−0.63/−1.10	2.00**/1.81	0.68/0.83	−0.64/−0.74	−1.25/−1.25	0.82/0.82	−1.74/−1.84	0.18/0.19	0.14/0.14
Narayanpur	1.53/1.91	0.87/1.17	1.09/1.48	1.83/1.83	−1.53/−1.53	0.56/0.56	−0.45/−0.38	1.15/1.15	0.65/0.65	−0.31/−0.31
Orchha	2.90/2.84	1.41/1.41	2.64/3.81	1.72/1.72	−1.68/−1.68	0.96/0.96	−0.09/−0.06	1.41/1.41	0.75/0.75	−1.01/−1.01
Baramkela	2.16/3.28	−0.15/−0.19	2.41/3.84	2.02/2.02	−0.68/−0.61	1.85/2.04**	0.07/0.07	1.49/1.49	0.26/0.26	0.37/0.37
Gharghoda	0.19/0.19	−1.02/−4.34*	0.31/0.28	1.43/1.43	−0.66/−0.58	0.26/0.26	−0.09/−0.09	0.10/0.10	0.42/0.37	−0.18/−0.15
Kharsia	1.17/1.52	−0.74/−1.53	1.39/1.77	1.25/1.25	−0.38/−0.33	−0.54/−0.54	−0.60/−0.60	−0.41/−0.48	0.33/0.33	−0.74/−0.74
Lailunga	0.12/0.13	−1.19/−1.36	0.47/0.45	1.04/1.04	−0.63/−0.61	0.51/0.51	−0.17/−0.17	0.54/0.80	0.31/0.31	−0.61/−0.52
Pusour	1.61/2.37**	−0.24/−0.50	1.62/3.00**	1.82/1.82	−0.41/−0.37	1.44/1.44	−0.03/−0.03	1.26/1.44	0.74/0.77	0.24/0.24
Raigarh	1.42/1.97**	−0.33/−0.72	1.53/2.16**	1.62/1.62	−0.30/−0.27	1.21/1.08	0.00/0.00	1.01/0.88	0.82/0.86	0.21/0.22
Sarangarh	2.30/3.11	−0.33/−0.47	2.54/2.54	1.65/1.65	−0.74/−0.66	0.83/0.83	−0.07/−0.06	0.89/1.02	0.28/0.28	0.21/0.29
Tamnar	0.79/1.49	−0.65/−1.10	1.10/1.50	1.38/1.38	−0.47/−0.41	0.83/0.83	−0.02/−0.02	0.64/0.52	0.67/0.67	−0.15/−0.13
Udaipur	−0.05/−0.05	−0.79/−1.54	−0.07/−0.07	1.11/1.34	−0.60/−0.53	−0.44/−0.44	−0.33/−0.33	−0.26/−0.26	0.41/0.36	−0.65/−0.65
Abhanpur	0.78/0.78	−0.30/−0.32	1.14/0.93	1.03/1.03	−1.21/−1.41	−0.86/−0.73	−0.31/−0.31	−0.75/−0.65	0.01/0.03	0.63/0.57
Arang	1.25/1.25	−0.85/−0.85	1.65/2.33**	0.93/0.93	−1.58/−1.89	0.17/0.17	0.21/0.22	0.24/0.24	0.23/0.25	0.56/0.50
Raipur	0.98/1.05	−0.32/−0.32	1.09/1.09	0.86/0.86	−1.54/−1.81	−0.23/−0.23	0.44/0.47	−0.15/−0.15	0.06/0.11	0.73/0.73
Tilda	0.78/0.78	−0.72/−0.72	1.37/1.76	1.12/0.93	−1.53/−1.83	−1.06/−1.06	0.17/0.42	−1.20/−1.20	0.15/0.32	0.62/0.62
Ambagarh	1.38/1.38	0.39/0.35	1.86/1.86	0.86/0.86	−1.02/−1.19	−0.85/−1.40	1.61/1.61	−1.21/−1.84	0.22/0.22	0.00/0.00
Chhuikhadan	1.18/1.18	0.08/0.09	1.63/1.63	1.44/1.44	−1.11/−1.30	−1.26/−1.97*	0.21/0.25	−1.19/−1.19	−0.26/−0.35	−0.65/−0.53
Chhuriya	0.89/0.89	−0.17/−0.15	1.49/1.76	0.99/0.99	−1.51/−1.75	−1.28/−2.52*	1.93/1.93	−1.77/−1.99*	−0.17/−0.21	0.27/0.27
Dongargaon	1.11/1.11	−0.40/−0.36	1.57/1.57	1.03/1.03	−1.82/−2.18*	−0.82/−0.82	2.11/2.13	−1.41/−1.41	−0.17/−0.22	1.20/1.20
Dongargarh	0.41/0.41	−0.29/−0.29	0.99/0.99	0.74/0.74	−1.72/−2.04*	−1.16/−1.24	1.43/1.92	−1.33/−1.51	−0.33/−0.42	0.42/0.34
Khairagarh	1.05/1.05	0.52/0.60	1.28/1.28	1.08/1.08	−0.95/−1.12	−0.22/−0.34	0.79/0.79	−0.17/−0.19	−0.36/−3.08*	−0.12/−0.10
Manpur	3.75/3.75	0.60/0.60	3.69/3.69	1.08/1.08	−1.59/−2.03*	1.18/1.18	0.67/0.67	1.14/1.14	0.94/0.94	−0.65/−0.65
Mohla	2.67/2.67	0.31/0.32	2.90/2.90	1.19/1.19	−1.28/−1.48	0.64/0.98	1.18/1.18	0.32/0.32	1.00/1.00	−0.14/−0.14
Rajnandgaon	1.61/1.61	0.45/0.63	1.49/1.49	0.84/0.84	−1.26/−1.50	0.84/0.84	2.10**/1.49	0.34/0.34	0.49/1.25	1.39/1.39
Chhindgarh	−1.28/−1.44	−0.68/−0.68	−1.38/−1.38	1.29/1.29	−2.07/−2.07	3.37/3.37	0.99/0.99	3.61/3.61	1.15/1.15	−1.32/−0.91
Konta	2.69/3.06	−2.32/−2.32	3.57/4.04	−0.70/−0.84	−2.65/−2.65	2.78/2.78	0.39/0.39	3.08/3.37	−0.33/−0.33	−0.78/−0.78
Sukma	−0.68/−0.88	−1.69/−1.69	−0.37/−0.31	0.21/0.21	−3.06/−3.06	3.54/3.54	1.19/1.19	3.61/3.61	1.43/1.43	−1.04/−0.65
Bhaiyathan	−1.02/−1.02	−0.54/−0.48	−0.70/−0.70	0.88/1.09	0.20/0.20	−1.04/−1.15	1.29/1.29	−1.04/−1.24	−0.06/−0.10	−0.06/−0.08
Oudgi	−0.79/−0.79	−0.57/−0.55	−0.65/−0.65	0.60/0.73	−0.24/−0.27	−0.81/−0.96	1.10/1.10	−0.74/−0.92	−0.24/−0.32	−0.17/−0.32
Pratappur	−0.86/−0.86	−0.96/−0.84	−0.56/−0.56	0.58/0.69	−0.07/−0.07	−1.35/−1.50	1.04/1.04	−1.11/−1.45	−0.69/−1.00	−0.49/−0.69
Premnagar	−0.97/−0.97	−0.88/−0.88	−0.89/−0.80	0.76/0.95	−0.15/−0.15	−0.91/−0.91	1.31/1.42	−1.37/−1.37	0.26/0.34	0.14/0.14
Ramanujnagar	−1.28/−1.28	−0.70/−0.70	−1.21/−1.21	0.84/1.03	0.04/0.04	−1.36/−1.47	1.48/1.48	−1.60/−1.86	0.08/0.12	0.10/0.10
Surajpur	−1.04/−1.04	−0.41/−0.39	−0.84/−0.84	0.84/1.03	0.19/0.19	−0.63/−0.60	1.05/1.05	−0.87/−0.87	0.38/0.41	−0.27/−0.27
Ambikapur	−0.65/−0.67	−0.67/−0.64	−0.51/−0.51	0.82/1.04	−0.06/−0.06	−0.67/−0.67	0.80/0.86	−0.82/−0.82	0.45/0.44	−0.52/−0.52
Batouli	−0.45/−0.46	−1.21/−1.21	−0.07/−0.07	0.42/0.59	−0.72/−0.95	−1.58/−1.58	0.15/0.15	−1.55/−1.55	0.18/0.19	−0.61/−0.61
Lakhanpur	−0.73/−0.74	−0.58/−0.56	−0.61/−0.61	1.00/1.24	0.08/0.08	−0.49/−0.49	0.88/0.94	−0.63/−0.63	0.68/0.59	−0.37/−0.37
Lundra	−0.93/−1.00	−0.86/−1.20	−0.55/−0.56	0.26/0.29	−0.48/−0.54	−1.14/−1.14	0.91/0.99	−1.30/−1.30	0.50/0.50	−0.85/−0.69
Mainpat	−0.37/−0.37	−1.31/−1.31	0.28/0.37	0.77/1.08	−0.82/−0.93	−0.98/−1.46	−0.01/−0.01	−1.00/−1.00	0.37/0.33	−0.65/−0.65
Sitapur	0.00/0.00	−1.59/−1.59	0.60/0.66	0.82/0.89	−0.96/−0.95	−1.44/−1.44	−0.78/−0.78	−1.34/−1.34	0.14/0.15	−1.04/−1.04
Udaypur	−0.64/−0.64	−0.79/−1.07	−0.61/−0.61	0.80/1.02	−0.24/−0.24	−0.50/−0.50	0.77/0.82	−0.88/−0.88	0.51/0.51	0.07/0.07
Antagarh	3.56/4.69	1.97/1.97	3.08/4.26	2.35/2.35	−1.25/−1.59	0.23/0.23	0.00/0.00	0.59/0.70	0.74/0.97	−0.61/−0.61
Bhanupratappur	3.00/3.37	1.05/1.17	2.81/3.2	1.79/1.79	−1.48/−1.91	0.15/0.15	−0.08/−0.07	0.16/0.16	0.59/0.75	−0.78/−0.77
Charama	1.07/1.11	−0.05/−0.05	1.18/1.18	1.58/1.58	−1.31/−1.40	0.07/0.18	1.12/1.12	−0.03/−0.03	0.93/0.93	0.31/0.31
Durgkondal	3.96/4.45	0.75/0.69	4.06/4.61	1.33/1.33	−1.70/−2.01*	0.78/0.78	0.26/0.20	0.69/0.69	0.84/0.84	−0.52/−0.52
Kanker	1.92/1.92	1.67/1.67	1.18/1.00	2.32/2.32	−1.06/−1.06	0.006/0.00	−0.54/−0.58	0.37/0.37	0.67/0.97	−0.02/−0.02
Narharpur	1.70/1.96**	0.73/0.73	1.52/1.76	1.63/1.39	−1.32/−1.43	−0.52/−1.16	−0.56/−0.66	−0.53/−0.53	0.67/0.85	−0.03/−0.03
Pakhanjur	4.44/6.27	1.72/1.97**	4.24/5.28	1.41/1.41	−1.60/−2.07*	0.68/0.68	0.04/0.03	0.87/0.87	0.74/0.74	−1.40/−1.40

Stations	1901–1961					1962–2020
	Annual	Pre-Monsoon	Monsoon	Post-Monsoon	Winter	Annual	Pre-Monsoon	Monsoon	Post-Monsoon	Winter
	MK/MMK	MK/MMK	MK/MMK	MK/MMK	MK/MMK	MK/MMK	MK/MMK	MK/MMK	MK/MMK	MK/MMK
Balod	0.46/0.43	−0.21/−0.25	0.81/0.91	1.55/1.55	−1.57/−1.57	0.40/0.71	2.39**/1.67	0.00/0.00	0.71/0.76	0.48/0.60
Dondi	2.29/2.49	0.65/0.59	2.21/2.21	1.60/1.60	−1.05/−1.05	1.09/1.84	1.69/1.39	0.82/0.82	1.09/1.04	0.33/0.33
Dondi Luhara	2.08/25.45	0.47/0.43	2.04/2.63	1.26/1.26	−1.07/−1.24	1.61/2.43**	3.22/2.60	0.70/1.11	1.00/0.95	1.69/1.69
Gunderdehi	1.45/1.45	−0.07/−0.20	1.46/1.46	1.41/1.41	−1.39/−1.63	0.77/0.71	3.45/2.10	0.17/0.18	0.93/1.61	1.71/1.70
Gurur	0.79/0.79	0.00/0.00	0.83/0.83	1.15/1.15	−1.11/−1.29	−0.04/−0.09	1.64/1.64	−0.49/−0.69	1.00/1.49	0.49/0.44
Baloda Bazar	1.07/1.07	−1.33/−1.84	1.83/1.83	0.69/0.59	−1.28/−1.52	0.03/0.03	1.11/1.16	−0.24/−0.20	0.38/1.13	0.42/0.42
Bhatapara	1.24/1.50	−0.67/−0.67	1.53/1.53	0.91/0.91	−1.34/−1.5	−0.78/−0.78	0.47/0.47	−0.96/−0.96	0.10/0.16	0.07/0.07
Bilaigarh	1.77/1.42	−0.55/−0.55	2.06**/1.65	1.56/1.89	−0.94/−0.94	−0.55/−0.55	0.50/0.52	−0.84/−0.96	−0.24/−0.24	0.05/0.05
Kasdol	1.30/1.30	−1.21/−1.21	1.99**/1.62	1.32/1.32	−1.24/−1.26	0.41/0.41	1.55/1.55	0.15/0.15	0.35/0.35	0.45/0.45
Palari	1.58/1.97**	−0.91/−0.91	1.80/1.80	1.32/1.32	−1.33/−1.61	−0.27/−0.27	1.30/1.80	−0.54/−0.54	0.50/0.66	0.99/0.98
Simga	0.74/0.74	−0.44/−0.44	1.16/1.16	1.37/1.17	−1.88/−2.27*	−1.28/−1.28	−0.07/−0.16	−1.40/−1.40	−0.44/−0.73	0.13/0.13
Balrampur	−0.09/−0.07	−1.09/−1.23	0.14/0.12	0.78/0.78	−0.3.00/−0.33	−1.53/−1.53	1.34/1.34	−1.56/−1.56	−0.35/−0.49	−0.80/−1.05
Rajpur	−0.84/−0.70	−0.68/−0.61	−0.57/−0.57	0.33/0.34	−0.21/−0.23	−1.02/−0.85	1.51/1.51	−1.19/−1.19	0.09/0.12	−0.61/−0.61
Ramanujganj	−0.29/−0.29	−1.14/−1.14	0.00/0.00	0.79/0.79	−0.08/−0.09	−1.65/−1.65	0.63/0.83	−1.36/−1.36	−1.35/−5.18*	−1.21/−1.76
Samri (kusmi)	0.23/0.18	−0.19/−0.16	0.51/0.42	0.78/0.78	−0.59/−0.67	−0.75/−0.75	0.77/0.77	−0.64/−0.64	0.23/0.23	−1.28/−1.28
Shankargarh	−0.58/−0.39	−0.64/−0.87	−0.31/−0.19	0.25/0.27	−0.70/−0.80	−1.16/−1.16	1.32/1.32	−1.21/−1.21	0.56/0.56	−0.66/−0.66
Wadrafnagar	−0.32/−0.32	−0.99/−0.96	0.01/0.01	0.77/0.77	−0.10/−0.11	−1.57/−1.57	1.07/1.07	−1.46/−1.62	−1.07/−2.96*	−1.17/−5.65*
Bakavand	−0.54/−0.62	−0.26/−0.26	−0.81/−0.95	1.49/1.49	−1.44/−1.44	1.78/1.78	−0.58/−0.58	2.73/3.58	0.17/0.17	−2.54/−3.65
Bastanar	−1.28/−1.76	0.19/0.19	−1.25/−1.79	1.62/1.62	−1.42/−1.42	1.74/1.74	0.75/0.64	2.11/2.11	−0.03/−0.03	−1.30/−1.30
Bastar	−0.82/−0.95	0.53/0.53	−1.18/−1.41	1.77/1.77	−1.30/−1.30	1.62/1.62	0.06/0.06	2.71/2.71	0.15/0.15	−1.78/−1.77
Darbha	−0.98/−1.41	0.30/0.30	−1.15/−1.37	1.58/1.58	−1.51/−1.51	2.95/2.95	0.97/1.12	3.36/3.36	0.51/0.51	−1.45/−1.45
Jagdalpur	−0.79/−0.96	0.47/0.47	−1.07/−1.28	1.83/1.83	−1.42/−1.42	2.04/2.04	0.68/0.86	2.78/2.47	−0.23/−0.23	−1.58/−1.58
Lohandiguda	−1.09/−1.10	0.24/0.24	−1.33/−1.88	1.81/1.81	−1.26/−1.26	1.34/1.16	0.30/0.25	2.11/2.11	−0.03/−0.03	−1.14/−1.14
Tokapal	−1.00/−1.47	0.54/0.54	−1.21/−1.81	1.63/1.63	−1.46/−1.46	1.95/1.95	0.84/0.84	2.54/2.54	−0.13/−0.13	−1.43/−1.43
Bemetara	−0.23/−0.23	−0.70/−1.09	0.08/0.08	1.47/1.47	−1.50/−1.82	0.00/0.00	0.31/0.31	0.04/0.04	−0.23/−0.38	0.03/0.03
Berla	−0.23/−0.23	−0.91/−2.41*	0.09/0.09	0.86/0.86	−1.55/−1.83	1.10/1.10	1.13/1.13	1.10/1.10	0.87/1.03	0.82/0.82
Nawagarh	0.87/0.87	−0.77/−0.77	1.06/1.25	1.12/1.12	−1.46/−1.78	−1.13/−1.13	0.46/0.41	−1.54/−1.54	−0.45/−0.48	0.33/0.38
Saja	0.91/0.91	−0.51/−0.60	1.06/1.06	0.92/0.92	−1.30/−1.52	2.39/2.81	1.12/0.91	2.41/2.8	0.68/0.82	0.39/0.29
Thanakhamria	0.15/0.15	−0.38/−0.48	0.39/0.39	1.18/1.18	−1.23/−1.49	1.56/1.56	0.43/0.43	1.94/1.94	0.28/0.34	0.02/0.01
Bhairamgarh	2.17/1.98	0.54/0.54	2.01**/1.67	1.83/1.83	−2.30/−2.30	0.83/0.83	−0.35/−0.24	1.23/1.23	−0.31/−0.31	−0.54/−0.54
Bhopalpattnam	3.99/3.99	1.23/1.23	3.78/3.78	1.99/1.99	−2.60/−3.01	1.44/1.44	0.22/0.22	1.65/1.65	−0.37/−0.37	−0.17/−0.17
Bijapur	3.48/3.48	0.36/0.36	3.55/3.07	1.52/1.52	−2.44/−2.44	1.05/1.05	0.11/0.11	1.09/0.92	−0.65/−0.65	−0.51/−0.5
Usur	3.37/3.37	−0.26/−0.26	3.63/3.63	1.11/1.11	−2.34/−2.79	1.75/1.57	1.41/1.90	1.66/1.36	−0.21/−0.19	−0.30/−0.30
Bilaspur	1.35/1.35	−0.52/−0.68	1.80/1.80	0.76/0.76	−0.56/−0.50	−0.38/−0.49	0.97/0.84	−0.82/−1.06	0.00/0.00	0.40/0.72
Bilha	1.60/1.60	−0.58/−1.22	2.43**/1.94	0.44/0.54	−0.56/−0.56	−0.67/−0.67	1.06/0.8	−1.30/−1.30	0.35/0.31	0.12/0.12
Kota	1.37/1.37	−1.44/−2.00*	1.92/1.92	0.63/0.77	−0.69/−0.69	−0.78/−0.96	0.48/0.61	−1.39/−6.21*	−0.05/−0.05	−0.05/−0.04
Marwahi	−0.55/−0.55	−1.62/−1.62	−0.03/−0.02	0.25/0.25	−0.48/−0.48	−1.29/−1.69	0.88/0.94	−1.65/−1.65	−0.13/−0.21	−0.21/−0.19
Masturi	1.09/1.09	−0.73/−0.97	1.80/1.43	0.47/0.47	−0.96/−0.87	−0.18/−0.32	0.92/0.79	−0.75/−1.29	0.05/0.05	0.35/0.45
Pendra	−0.49/−0.49	−1.58/−1.58	−0.01/−0.02	0.21/0.21	−0.44/−0.44	−1.23/−1.52	0.42/0.42	−1.83/−3.85*	−0.18/−0.18	−0.28/−0.23
Pendra Road	0.64/0.64	−1.05/−1.49	1.34/1.39	0.73/0.73	−0.47/−0.47	−1.04/−1.25	0.89/0.96	−1.88/−2.77*	−0.36/−0.46	−0.45/−0.37
Takhatpur	1.94/2.22**	−0.93/−1.10	2.21/2.51	0.40/0.50	−0.60/−0.60	−0.72/−0.72	1.58/1.58	−1.40/−1.40	0.39/0.37	0.37/0.37
Dantewada	−1.26/−1.17	−0.84/−0.84	−1.19/−3.76*	1.62/1.62	−1.85/−1.85	1.32/1.32	0.45/0.34	1.88/2.18**	−0.22/−0.22	−1.14/−0.90
Gidam	−1.51/−1.39	−0.70/−0.70	−1.49/−4.10*	1.60/1.60	−1.47/−1.47	0.84/0.84	0.21/0.13	1.70/1.70	−0.42/−0.42	−0.99/−0.79
Katekalyan	−1.30/−1.49	−0.46/−0.46	−1.16/−2.94*	1.54/1.54	−2.09/−2.09*	2.94/2.94	0.78/0.84	3.21/3.21	0.75/0.75	−1.74/−1.39
Kuakonda	0.33/0.41	−0.67/−0.67	0.63/1.29	1.15/1.15	−2.80/−2.80	2.64/2.64	0.86/0.70	2.55/2.87	0.72/0.92	−1.35/−1.07
Dhamtari	1.01/1.30	−0.19/−0.20	1.09/1.09	1.15/1.15	−1.34/−1.44	−0.26/−0.46	0.82/0.82	−0.57/−0.57	1.00/1.05	0.32/0.27
Kurud	1.04/1.04	−0.07/−0.06	1.44/1.44	1.09/0.92	−1.16/−1.49	−1.25/−1.25	−0.27/−0.27	−1.02/−1.02	0.20/0.22	0.29/0.35
Magarlod	1.48/1.78	−0.38/−0.33	1.62/1.90	1.07/0.94	−1.74/−2.29*	−1.29/−1.29	−1.33/−1.69	−0.83/−0.83	0.05/0.07	−0.67/−0.67
Nagri	1.72/2.24**	−0.60/−0.60	1.93/2.39**	1.21/1.28	−1.65/−1.79	−1.36/−1.93	−1.12/−1.27	−1.20/−1.20	0.35/0.80	−0.96/−0.96
Dhamdha	0.69/0.69	−0.56/−0.87	0.81/0.81	0.79/0.79	−1.40/−1.64	1.89/1.68	1.28/0.90	1.41/1.41	0.97/1.60	0.77/0.77
Durg	1.23/1.23	−0.21/−0.31	1.37/1.37	1.09/1.09	−1.53/−1.82	1.04/1.04	1.85/0.73	0.35/0.35	0.60/1.13	1.34/1.34
Patan	0.94/0.94	−0.27/−0.28	1.11/1.11	0.91/0.91	−1.42/−1.70	−0.67/−0.67	0.61/0.80	−0.95/−0.95	0.31/0.33	1.16/1.16
Bindranavagarh	1.30/1.52	−1.24/−1.24	1.58/2.12**	1.05/1.10	−2.01/−2.17	−0.27/−0.27	−1.32/−1.84	−0.22/−0.22	0.45/0.43	−1.30/−1.30
Chhura	1.12/0.97	−1.25/−4.39*	1.52/1.52	1.25/1.25	−1.83/−2.15*	−0.10/−0.10	−1.00/−0.97	−0.15/−0.15	0.25/0.24	−0.74/−0.74
Deobhog	−0.42/−0.42	−2.35/−2.84	0.58/0.99	0.83/0.75	−2.19*/−1.80	1.15/1.02	−0.10/−0.15	1.06/0.95	−0.11/−0.11	−0.79/−1.14
Mainpur	−0.03/−0.04	−2.11/−2.11	0.98/1.14	0.93/0.93	−2.27*/−1.93	0.34/0.34	−0.67/−0.81	0.47/0.42	0.39/0.39	−1.49/−1.49
Rajim	0.83/0.68	−1.35/−1.40	1.20/1.18	0.92/0.92	−1.61/−1.89	0.32/0.27	−0.51/−0.51	0.68/0.58	−0.01/−0.01	0.26/0.26
Akaltara	0.88/0.72	−0.45/−0.59	1.29/1.04	0.51/0.51	−0.21/−0.21	−1.25/−1.80	0.31/0.25	−1.86/−2.88*	0.07/0.07	−0.21/−0.28
Baloda	0.45/0.45	−0.75/−0.75	0.95/0.95	0.75/0.75	−1.00/−0.89	−0.82/−0.82	0.56/0.46	−1.05/−1.54	−0.00/−0.00	0.42/0.42
Champa	0.64/0.50	−1.04/−1.04	1.06/0.86	1.08/0.92	−0.92/−1.07	−2.23/−4.75	0.75/0.92	−2.29/−2.29	0.01/0.03	−0.19/−0.19
Dabhra	1.85/6.89**	−0.53/−1.04	2.29/3.33	1.30/1.30	−0.42/−0.42	0.64/0.64	−0.20/−0.24	0.70/0.81	0.55/0.73	0.24/0.24
Jaijaipur	1.48/1.31	−0.88/−0.88	1.64/1.49	1.02/1.02	−0.73/−0.73	−1.07/−1.07	−0.01/−0.01	−1.30/−1.30	0.12/0.12	−0.38/−0.38
Janjgir	0.82/0.67	−0.63/−0.94	1.02/0.84	0.71/0.61	−0.44/−0.44	−1.88/−1.88	0.14/0.15	−2.37/−3.54	0.07/0.08	−0.49/−0.49
Malkharoda	1.63/1.63	−0.83/−1.35	1.87/1.82	1.23/1.23	−0.47/−0.47	−0.54/−0.54	−0.48/−0.51	−0.52/−0.53	0.00/0.00	−0.73/−0.73
Nawagarh	0.82/0.62	−1.08/−1.08	1.53/1.19	0.62/0.53	−0.88/−0.89	−1.14/−1.14	0.38/0.35	−1.49/−1.49	−0.01/−0.01	−0.19/−0.19
Pamgarh	0.84/0.60	−1.17/−1.32	1.42/1.14	0.25/0.21	−0.79/−0.79	−0.44/−0.72	0.68/0.55	−1.01/−1.30	0.10/0.10	−0.10/−0.10
Sakti	0.75/0.76	−0.94/−1.08	1.12/0.86	0.97/0.97	−0.84/−0.85	−1.96/−1.96	−0.38/−0.38	−1.70/−1.70	0.15/0.15	−0.69/−0.69
Bagicha	−0.17/−0.18	−1.18/−1.18	0.49/0.53	0.65/0.70	−0.65/−0.65	−1.53/−2.46*	0.21/0.21	−1.63/−2.11*	0.26/0.35	−0.95/−0.95
Duldula	0.44/0.41	−1.42/−1.42	1.05/1.79	0.75/0.75	−0.44/−0.43	−1.20/−0.98	−0.08/−0.08	−1.47/−1.34	0.23/0.23	−1.13/−1.13
Farsabahar	0.07/0.09	−1.69/−1.69	0.61/0.69	0.76/0.76	−0.74/−0.60	−0.21/−0.21	−0.35/−0.37	−0.32/−0.40	0.06/0.06	−1.34/−1.76
Jashpur	0.49/0.60	−0.58/−0.58	0.72/0.86	0.51/0.51	0.03/0.05	−0.61/−0.76	0.13/0.13	−0.72/−0.72	0.40/0.36	−1.46/−1.46
Kansabel	0.27/0.27	−1.80/−1.80	0.96/1.48	0.84/0.90	−0.74/−0.71	−1.36/−1.36	−0.51/−0.51	−1.30/−1.30	0.03/0.05	−1.28/−1.28
Kunkuri	0.35/0.35	−1.72/−1.72	0.96/1.47	0.79/0.79	−0.50/−0.49	−1.53/−1.69	−0.40/−0.40	−1.52/−1.52	−0.01/−0.01	−1.44/−1.44
Manora	0.67/0.54	−0.49/−0.96	0.73/0.71	0.78/0.93	−0.47/−0.53	−0.12/−0.16	0.27/0.27	0.07/0.09	0.05/0.05	−1.48/−1.48
Pathalgaon	−0.18/−0.21	−1.58/−1.58	0.300/0.33	0.893/0.95	−0.88/−1.01	−0.19/−0.19	−0.18/−0.18	−0.08/−0.08	0.25/0.34	−1.34/−1.15
Bodla	1.71/1.71	−0.38/−0.38	2.04**/1.68	1.19/1.04	−0.61/−0.72	−0.49/−0.49	0.76/0.76	−0.59/−0.69	−0.20/−0.23	0.27/0.26
Kawardha	1.09/1.09	−0.37/−0.43	1.39/1.39	1.32/1.32	−0.70/−0.82	−0.59/−0.70	0.19/0.19	−0.31/−0.31	−0.15/−0.20	0.23/0.20
Pandariya	1.47/1.47	−0.44/−0.67	1.62/1.62	1.14/1.14	−0.36/−0.43	−0.93/−1.12	1.04/1.04	−1.37/−1.68	0.07/0.11	0.21/0.16
Sahaspur Lohara	1.16/1.16	−0.32/−0.28	1.27/1.27	1.39/1.39	−1.29/−1.56	1.39/1.39	0.04/0.05	1.88/1.88	0.17/0.24	−0.26/−0.23
Bade Rajpur	2.69/4.40	1.02/1.02	2.46/5.38	2.04/2.04	−1.08/−1.16	0.34/0.50	1.19/1.13	0.24/0.24	1.39/1.82	−0.11/−0.11
Farasgaon	2.67/3.55	1.73/1.73	2.27/4.44	2.22/2.22	−1.32/−1.32	0.50/0.50	−0.03/−0.03	0.35/0.35	1.14/1.67	−0.17/−0.17
Keskal	3.18/4.65	2.22/2.22	2.16/3.18	2.44/2.44	−0.98/−1.05	−0.08/−0.08	0.77/0.90	0.00/0.00	1.01/1.38	−0.20/−0.20
Kondagaon	−0.15/−0.14	−0.00/−0.00	−0.31/−0.43	1.55/1.71	−1.43/−1.43	0.65/0.57	−0.65/−0.65	1.43/1.43	0.73/0.73	−0.95/−0.95
Makdi	0.79/1.21	−0.73/−0.73	0.77/1.30	1.64/1.64	−1.28/−1.28	1.18/1.18	0.33/0.41	1.26/1.49	1.62/1.62	−1.57/−2.08*
Kartala	0.21/0.21	−1.19/−1.48	0.58/0.77	0.84/0.84	−0.84/−0.75	−1.46/−1.46	0.12/0.12	−1.46/−1.46	0.39/0.39	−0.42/−0.42
Katghora	0.44/0.40	−0.97/−0.87	1.15/1.29	0.98/0.98	−0.91/−0.80	−1.39/−1.72	0.29/0.37	−1.57/−2.78*	−0.01/−0.01	0.05/0.05
Korba	0.28/0.26	−1.32/−1.69	0.51/0.51	0.60/0.60	−0.67/−0.59	−0.89/−1.27	0.10/0.12	−0.89/−1.49	0.44/0.44	0.43/0.37
Pali	1.46/1.34	−0.82/−0.73	1.75/1.93	1.23/1.23	−0.75/−0.67	−1.70/−2.77*	0.27/0.30	−1.71/−2.85*	−0.03/−0.03	0.23/0.27
Poundi-Uproda	−0.13/−0.14	−1.19/−1.19	0.33/0.37	0.76/0.96	−0.74/−0.66	−1.62/−4.13*	0.61/0.74	−2.00/−4.19	0.39/0.39	0.19/0.19
Baikunthpur	−1.94/−1.94	−1.18/−1.43	−1.66/−1.66	0.35/0.43	−0.09/−0.09	−1.46/−1.69	1.30/1.30	−1.67/−1.98*	0.07/0.08	0.27/0.22
Bharatpur	−1.24/−1.24	−0.79/−0.79	−0.91/−0.77	−0.38/−0.34	−0.32/−0.32	0.03/0.03	0.66/0.66	0.05/0.05	0.54/0.54	−0.16/−0.12
Khadganva	−1.23/−1.23	−1.26/−1.48	−1.02/−1.15	0.58/0.69	−0.47/−0.47	−1.23/−1.60	1.33/1.44	−1.89/−2.22*	0.51/0.78	0.42/0.81
Manendragarh	−1.60/−1.60	−1.67/−1.97*	−1.18/−1.18	−0.00/−0.00	−0.53/−0.53	−0.56/−0.56	1.48/1.48	−0.89/−0.89	1.07/1.60	0.47/2.28**
Sonhat	−0.91/−0.91	−1.23/−1.44	−1.10/−1.10	0.45/0.55	−0.44/−0.44	−0.23/−0.28	1.44/1.44	−0.60/−0.73	0.74/0.77	0.33/0.77
Bagbahra	0.68/0.68	−1.91/−4.28*	1.20/1.20	1.18/1.18	−1.93/−2.29*	0.31/0.31	−0.13/−0.14	0.20/0.20	0.56/0.49	−0.32/−0.32
Basna	2.04/2.04	−0.60/−0.60	2.21**/1.82	1.85/2.21**	−1.09/−1.08	−0.07/−0.07	0.01/0.02	−0.24/−0.24	0.07/0.06	0.17/0.17
Mahasamund	1.39/1.39	−1.38/−1.71	1.92/1.92	1.18/1.18	−2.00/−2.20	0.75/0.83	0.38/0.31	0.67/0.67	0.42/0.41	0.53/0.52
Pithora	1.84/1.84	−1.02/−1.36	2.31/2.31	1.64/1.97**	−1.51/−1.54	−0.05/−0.05	0.38/0.34	−0.05/−0.05	0.17/0.17	0.05/0.05
Saraipali	1.85/1.85	−0.33/−0.51	1.95/2.03**	1.96/1.96	−0.92/−0.81	0.89/0.89	0.00/0.00	0.83/0.83	0.28/0.28	0.69/0.99
Lormi	1.94/1.94	−0.88/−1.47	2.27/2.27	0.75/0.75	−0.52/−0.60	−0.49/−0.57	1.20/1.20	−1.14/−1.35	−0.24/−0.23	−0.14/−0.11
Mungeli	1.55/1.55	−0.72/−1.88	1.92/1.92	0.89/0.89	−0.71/−0.84	−1.21/−1.21	0.77/0.77	−1.67/−1.67	−0.02/−0.02	0.33/0.26
Pathariya	1.80/1.80	−0.63/−1.10	2.00**/1.81	0.68/0.83	−0.64/−0.74	−1.25/−1.25	0.82/0.82	−1.74/−1.84	0.18/0.19	0.14/0.14
Narayanpur	1.53/1.91	0.87/1.17	1.09/1.48	1.83/1.83	−1.53/−1.53	0.56/0.56	−0.45/−0.38	1.15/1.15	0.65/0.65	−0.31/−0.31
Orchha	2.90/2.84	1.41/1.41	2.64/3.81	1.72/1.72	−1.68/−1.68	0.96/0.96	−0.09/−0.06	1.41/1.41	0.75/0.75	−1.01/−1.01
Baramkela	2.16/3.28	−0.15/−0.19	2.41/3.84	2.02/2.02	−0.68/−0.61	1.85/2.04**	0.07/0.07	1.49/1.49	0.26/0.26	0.37/0.37
Gharghoda	0.19/0.19	−1.02/−4.34*	0.31/0.28	1.43/1.43	−0.66/−0.58	0.26/0.26	−0.09/−0.09	0.10/0.10	0.42/0.37	−0.18/−0.15
Kharsia	1.17/1.52	−0.74/−1.53	1.39/1.77	1.25/1.25	−0.38/−0.33	−0.54/−0.54	−0.60/−0.60	−0.41/−0.48	0.33/0.33	−0.74/−0.74
Lailunga	0.12/0.13	−1.19/−1.36	0.47/0.45	1.04/1.04	−0.63/−0.61	0.51/0.51	−0.17/−0.17	0.54/0.80	0.31/0.31	−0.61/−0.52
Pusour	1.61/2.37**	−0.24/−0.50	1.62/3.00**	1.82/1.82	−0.41/−0.37	1.44/1.44	−0.03/−0.03	1.26/1.44	0.74/0.77	0.24/0.24
Raigarh	1.42/1.97**	−0.33/−0.72	1.53/2.16**	1.62/1.62	−0.30/−0.27	1.21/1.08	0.00/0.00	1.01/0.88	0.82/0.86	0.21/0.22
Sarangarh	2.30/3.11	−0.33/−0.47	2.54/2.54	1.65/1.65	−0.74/−0.66	0.83/0.83	−0.07/−0.06	0.89/1.02	0.28/0.28	0.21/0.29
Tamnar	0.79/1.49	−0.65/−1.10	1.10/1.50	1.38/1.38	−0.47/−0.41	0.83/0.83	−0.02/−0.02	0.64/0.52	0.67/0.67	−0.15/−0.13
Udaipur	−0.05/−0.05	−0.79/−1.54	−0.07/−0.07	1.11/1.34	−0.60/−0.53	−0.44/−0.44	−0.33/−0.33	−0.26/−0.26	0.41/0.36	−0.65/−0.65
Abhanpur	0.78/0.78	−0.30/−0.32	1.14/0.93	1.03/1.03	−1.21/−1.41	−0.86/−0.73	−0.31/−0.31	−0.75/−0.65	0.01/0.03	0.63/0.57
Arang	1.25/1.25	−0.85/−0.85	1.65/2.33**	0.93/0.93	−1.58/−1.89	0.17/0.17	0.21/0.22	0.24/0.24	0.23/0.25	0.56/0.50
Raipur	0.98/1.05	−0.32/−0.32	1.09/1.09	0.86/0.86	−1.54/−1.81	−0.23/−0.23	0.44/0.47	−0.15/−0.15	0.06/0.11	0.73/0.73
Tilda	0.78/0.78	−0.72/−0.72	1.37/1.76	1.12/0.93	−1.53/−1.83	−1.06/−1.06	0.17/0.42	−1.20/−1.20	0.15/0.32	0.62/0.62
Ambagarh	1.38/1.38	0.39/0.35	1.86/1.86	0.86/0.86	−1.02/−1.19	−0.85/−1.40	1.61/1.61	−1.21/−1.84	0.22/0.22	0.00/0.00
Chhuikhadan	1.18/1.18	0.08/0.09	1.63/1.63	1.44/1.44	−1.11/−1.30	−1.26/−1.97*	0.21/0.25	−1.19/−1.19	−0.26/−0.35	−0.65/−0.53
Chhuriya	0.89/0.89	−0.17/−0.15	1.49/1.76	0.99/0.99	−1.51/−1.75	−1.28/−2.52*	1.93/1.93	−1.77/−1.99*	−0.17/−0.21	0.27/0.27
Dongargaon	1.11/1.11	−0.40/−0.36	1.57/1.57	1.03/1.03	−1.82/−2.18*	−0.82/−0.82	2.11/2.13	−1.41/−1.41	−0.17/−0.22	1.20/1.20
Dongargarh	0.41/0.41	−0.29/−0.29	0.99/0.99	0.74/0.74	−1.72/−2.04*	−1.16/−1.24	1.43/1.92	−1.33/−1.51	−0.33/−0.42	0.42/0.34
Khairagarh	1.05/1.05	0.52/0.60	1.28/1.28	1.08/1.08	−0.95/−1.12	−0.22/−0.34	0.79/0.79	−0.17/−0.19	−0.36/−3.08*	−0.12/−0.10
Manpur	3.75/3.75	0.60/0.60	3.69/3.69	1.08/1.08	−1.59/−2.03*	1.18/1.18	0.67/0.67	1.14/1.14	0.94/0.94	−0.65/−0.65
Mohla	2.67/2.67	0.31/0.32	2.90/2.90	1.19/1.19	−1.28/−1.48	0.64/0.98	1.18/1.18	0.32/0.32	1.00/1.00	−0.14/−0.14
Rajnandgaon	1.61/1.61	0.45/0.63	1.49/1.49	0.84/0.84	−1.26/−1.50	0.84/0.84	2.10**/1.49	0.34/0.34	0.49/1.25	1.39/1.39
Chhindgarh	−1.28/−1.44	−0.68/−0.68	−1.38/−1.38	1.29/1.29	−2.07/−2.07	3.37/3.37	0.99/0.99	3.61/3.61	1.15/1.15	−1.32/−0.91
Konta	2.69/3.06	−2.32/−2.32	3.57/4.04	−0.70/−0.84	−2.65/−2.65	2.78/2.78	0.39/0.39	3.08/3.37	−0.33/−0.33	−0.78/−0.78
Sukma	−0.68/−0.88	−1.69/−1.69	−0.37/−0.31	0.21/0.21	−3.06/−3.06	3.54/3.54	1.19/1.19	3.61/3.61	1.43/1.43	−1.04/−0.65
Bhaiyathan	−1.02/−1.02	−0.54/−0.48	−0.70/−0.70	0.88/1.09	0.20/0.20	−1.04/−1.15	1.29/1.29	−1.04/−1.24	−0.06/−0.10	−0.06/−0.08
Oudgi	−0.79/−0.79	−0.57/−0.55	−0.65/−0.65	0.60/0.73	−0.24/−0.27	−0.81/−0.96	1.10/1.10	−0.74/−0.92	−0.24/−0.32	−0.17/−0.32
Pratappur	−0.86/−0.86	−0.96/−0.84	−0.56/−0.56	0.58/0.69	−0.07/−0.07	−1.35/−1.50	1.04/1.04	−1.11/−1.45	−0.69/−1.00	−0.49/−0.69
Premnagar	−0.97/−0.97	−0.88/−0.88	−0.89/−0.80	0.76/0.95	−0.15/−0.15	−0.91/−0.91	1.31/1.42	−1.37/−1.37	0.26/0.34	0.14/0.14
Ramanujnagar	−1.28/−1.28	−0.70/−0.70	−1.21/−1.21	0.84/1.03	0.04/0.04	−1.36/−1.47	1.48/1.48	−1.60/−1.86	0.08/0.12	0.10/0.10
Surajpur	−1.04/−1.04	−0.41/−0.39	−0.84/−0.84	0.84/1.03	0.19/0.19	−0.63/−0.60	1.05/1.05	−0.87/−0.87	0.38/0.41	−0.27/−0.27
Ambikapur	−0.65/−0.67	−0.67/−0.64	−0.51/−0.51	0.82/1.04	−0.06/−0.06	−0.67/−0.67	0.80/0.86	−0.82/−0.82	0.45/0.44	−0.52/−0.52
Batouli	−0.45/−0.46	−1.21/−1.21	−0.07/−0.07	0.42/0.59	−0.72/−0.95	−1.58/−1.58	0.15/0.15	−1.55/−1.55	0.18/0.19	−0.61/−0.61
Lakhanpur	−0.73/−0.74	−0.58/−0.56	−0.61/−0.61	1.00/1.24	0.08/0.08	−0.49/−0.49	0.88/0.94	−0.63/−0.63	0.68/0.59	−0.37/−0.37
Lundra	−0.93/−1.00	−0.86/−1.20	−0.55/−0.56	0.26/0.29	−0.48/−0.54	−1.14/−1.14	0.91/0.99	−1.30/−1.30	0.50/0.50	−0.85/−0.69
Mainpat	−0.37/−0.37	−1.31/−1.31	0.28/0.37	0.77/1.08	−0.82/−0.93	−0.98/−1.46	−0.01/−0.01	−1.00/−1.00	0.37/0.33	−0.65/−0.65
Sitapur	0.00/0.00	−1.59/−1.59	0.60/0.66	0.82/0.89	−0.96/−0.95	−1.44/−1.44	−0.78/−0.78	−1.34/−1.34	0.14/0.15	−1.04/−1.04
Udaypur	−0.64/−0.64	−0.79/−1.07	−0.61/−0.61	0.80/1.02	−0.24/−0.24	−0.50/−0.50	0.77/0.82	−0.88/−0.88	0.51/0.51	0.07/0.07
Antagarh	3.56/4.69	1.97/1.97	3.08/4.26	2.35/2.35	−1.25/−1.59	0.23/0.23	0.00/0.00	0.59/0.70	0.74/0.97	−0.61/−0.61
Bhanupratappur	3.00/3.37	1.05/1.17	2.81/3.2	1.79/1.79	−1.48/−1.91	0.15/0.15	−0.08/−0.07	0.16/0.16	0.59/0.75	−0.78/−0.77
Charama	1.07/1.11	−0.05/−0.05	1.18/1.18	1.58/1.58	−1.31/−1.40	0.07/0.18	1.12/1.12	−0.03/−0.03	0.93/0.93	0.31/0.31
Durgkondal	3.96/4.45	0.75/0.69	4.06/4.61	1.33/1.33	−1.70/−2.01*	0.78/0.78	0.26/0.20	0.69/0.69	0.84/0.84	−0.52/−0.52
Kanker	1.92/1.92	1.67/1.67	1.18/1.00	2.32/2.32	−1.06/−1.06	0.006/0.00	−0.54/−0.58	0.37/0.37	0.67/0.97	−0.02/−0.02
Narharpur	1.70/1.96**	0.73/0.73	1.52/1.76	1.63/1.39	−1.32/−1.43	−0.52/−1.16	−0.56/−0.66	−0.53/−0.53	0.67/0.85	−0.03/−0.03
Pakhanjur	4.44/6.27	1.72/1.97**	4.24/5.28	1.41/1.41	−1.60/−2.07*	0.68/0.68	0.04/0.03	0.87/0.87	0.74/0.74	−1.40/−1.40

*Shows negative significant (at 5% significant level).**Shows positive significant (at 5% significant level).

Table 3

Block-wise results of trend analysis of monthly and seasonal rainfall using MK/MMK for Chhattisgarh State during 1901–2020

Stations	Annual	Pre-Monsoon	Monsoon	Post-Monsoon	Winter
Stations	MMK	MMK	MMK	MMK	MMK
Balod	−3.221/− 2.908	−1.722/− 1.901	−2.729/− 2.925	−0.397/− 0.462	−2.156/− 2.549
Dondi	−1.522/− 1.347	−1.547/− 1.57	−0.905/− 0.837	0.041/0.047	−2.177/− 2.991
Dondi Luhara	−1.649/− 1.572	−1.404/− 1.1	−1.331/− 1.258	−0.508/− 0.578	−1.89/− 3.742*
Gunderdehi	−2.309/− 2.06	−0.975/− 0.631	−1.855/− 1.673	−0.263/− 0.341	−1.953/− 1.875
Gurur	−2.504/− 2.648	−0.826/− 1.249	−2.062*/− 1.939	−0.347/− 0.426	−1.965/− 2.602
Baloda Bazar	−4.187/− 4.643	−2.395/− 3.707	−3.713/− 4.016	−1.429/− 1.429	−2.575/− 3.886
Bhatapara	−4.571/− 4.137	−2.434/− 2.937	−4.185/− 3.672	−1.413/− 1.413	−2.797/− 3.481
Bilaigarh	−4.602/− 5.139	−1.586/− 1.483	−4.439/− 3.853	−1.096/− 0.955	−1.79/− 2.066*
Kasdol	−4.48/− 4.451	−2.672/− 2.755	−4.108/− 3.929	−1.522/− 1.522	−2.364/− 2.92
Palari	−3.872/− 4.528	−2.33/− 3	−3.697/− 3.345	−1.683/− 1.862	−2.857/− 4.256
Simga	−4.212/− 4.174	−2.506/− 4.29	−3.831/− 3.831	−1.366/− 1.592	−2.838/− 4.365
Balrampur	−4.319/− 3.756	−2.044*/− 1.745	−3.57/− 4.485	−0.558/− 0.558	−3.886/− 2.994
Rajpur	−4.815/− 4.663	−2.03/− 2.12	−4.18/− 4.016	−1.08/− 1.04	−3.185/− 2.505
Ramanujganj	−3.675/− 4.013	−2.207/− 3.446	−2.885/− 2.773	−0.862/− 1.306	−4.208/− 4.255
Samri (Kusmi)	−5.841/− 4.942	−2.286/− 2.713	−5.187/− 4.589	−1.116/− 1.243	−3.779/− 4.515
Shankargarh	−5.029/− 4.617	−3.08/− 3.174	−4.185/− 4.987	−1.209/− 1.144	−3.999/− 3.583
Wadrafnagar	−3.398/− 3.821	−2.366/− 2.011	−2.656/− 2.859	−0.796/− 1.197	−3.872/− 4.776
Bakavand	−1.57/− 1.591	−0.633/− 0.633	−0.982/− 0.843	−0.272/− 0.272	−1.975/− 3.368
Bastanar	−2.23*/− 1.889	−0.597/− 0.597	−1.42/− 1.057	−0.535/− 0.535	−1.094/− 1.746
Bastar	−1.946/− 1.946	0.229/0.229	−1.186/− 1.011	−0.025/− 0.025	−1.425/− 2.589*
Darbha	−1.586/− 1.31	0.531/0.618	−1.204/− 0.942	−0.032/− 0.029	−0.998/− 1.638
Jagdalpur	−2.67/− 2.67	0.572/0.715	−2.175*/− 1.939	−0.293/− 0.293	−0.88/− 1.44
Lohandiguda	−2.633/− 2.235	−0.628/− 0.628	−1.828/− 1.382	−0.408/− 0.408	−1.015/− 1.678
Tokapal	−1.458/− 1.222	1.549/1.761	−1.025/− 0.83	−0.399/− 0.399	−1.076/− 1.873
Bemetara	−2.865/− 2.84	−2.212/− 3.304	−2.116/− 2.116	−0.946/− 0.946	−2.788/− 3.893
Berla	−2.311/− 2.311	−1.527/− 3.535*	−1.481/− 1.481	−0.676/− 0.598	−2.629/− 3.791
Nawagarh	−3.228/− 3.228	−2.08/− 14.828	−2.881/− 2.881	−0.987/− 0.987	−2.25/− 3.665
Saja	−0.245/− 0.245	−1.987*/− 1.595	0.667/0.667	−1.334/− 1.334	−3.058/− 4.701
Thanakhamria	−1.15/− 1.15	−1.899/− 2.178*	−0.064/− 0.064	−1.109/− 1.109	−2.94/− 4.136
Bhairamgarh	−0.401/− 0.401	−4.747/− 4.258	0.635/0.553	−0.374/− 0.374	−2.528/− 2.527
Bhopalpattnam	2.892/2.829	−2.368/− 2.368	3.348/3.947	1.021/1.021	−2.601/− 3.222
Bijapur	2.779/3.724	−3.684/− 3.307	3.468/3.336	0.141/0.141	−2.356/− 2.65
Usur	4.566/6.582	−1.413/− 1.692	4.99/6.377	0.755/0.755	−1.461/− 1.461
Bilaspur	−2.833/− 3.011	−1.304/− 1.374	−2.488/− 2.046	−0.921/− 1.111	−1.699/− 2.311*
Bilha	−3.21/− 2.541	−1.527/− 1.937	−2.808/− 2.209	−0.737/− 0.78	−1.973/− 2.754
Kota	−1.749/− 1.749	−1.447/− 1.699	−1.59/− 1.679	−0.617/− 0.756	−1.606/− 2.003*
Marwahi	−1.76/− 2.149*	−0.982/− 1.202	−1.032/− 1.215	−0.59/− 0.494	−1.905/− 2.249*
Masturi	−3.389/− 4.07	−1.613/− 1.588	−3.064/− 2.617	−1.184/− 1.402	−2.173/− 2.415
Pendra	−0.937/− 1.358	−0.519/− 0.709	−0.42/− 0.504	−0.436/− 0.436	−1.54/− 1.839
Pendra Road	−0.848/− 1.012	0.331/0.855	−0.576/− 0.558	−0.658/− 0.781	−1.25/− 1.506
Takhatpur	−1.815/− 1.815	−1.454/− 1.886	−1.715/− 1.715	−0.479/− 0.511	−1.472/− 1.82
Dantewada	−1.996/− 1.996	−4.559/− 5.028	−0.753/− 0.631	−0.653/− 0.653	−1.697/− 1.697
Gidam	−3.241/− 3.241	−4.235/− 3.914	−2.098*/− 1.785	−0.953/− 0.953	−1.419/− 1.418
Katekalyan	−1.37/− 1.199	−2.579/− 2.579	−0.411/− 0.317	−0.17/− 0.158	−1.818/− 2.137*
Kuakonda	1.123/1.157	−3.709/− 3.268	2.164/2.164	0/0	−2.562/− 2.561
Dhamtari	−2.717/− 2.446	−1.116/− 1.382	−2.148/− 1.995	−0.277/− 0.287	−2.075/− 2.716
Kurud	−3.643/− 3.643	−2.087/− 2.149	−2.849/− 2.849	−1.005/− 1.174	−2.145*/− 1.877
Magarlod	−3.325/− 3.325	−2.416/− 2.516	−2.518/− 2.518	−1.173/− 1.05	−2.504/− 2.616
Nagri	−2.91/− 2.91	−1.427/− 1.37	−2.325/− 2.325	−0.719/− 0.646	−2.464/− 2.782
Dhamdha	−1.404/− 1.252	−1.558/− 1.279	−0.823/− 0.752	−0.817/− 0.715	−2.418/− 2.753
Durg	−1.733/− 1.717	−1.685/− 0.874	−1.132/− 1.132	−0.665/− 0.684	−1.971*/− 1.894
Patan	−2.35/− 2.35	−0.742/− 0.759	−1.93/− 1.93	−0.667/− 0.698	−1.39/− 1.734
Bindranavagarh	−3.377/− 3.723	−2.404/− 3.173	−2.715/− 2.98	−1.082/− 1.126	−2.818/− 3.126
Chhura	−3.296/− 3.535	−2.631/− 2.627	−2.715/− 2.548	−1.384/− 1.442	−2.767/− 3.925
Deobhog	−1.109/− 0.926	−1.048/− 1.455	−0.497/− 0.447	−1.481/− 1.303	−1.089/− 1.043
Mainpur	−2.713/− 2.806	−1.27/− 1.473	−1.821/− 1.401	−1.073/− 0.961	−1.849/− 1.603
Rajim	−3.577/− 3.027	−3.101/− 3.671	−2.885/− 2.318	−1.502/− 1.562	−2.743/− 3.045
Akaltara	−4.058/− 3.268	−1.611/− 2.304*	−3.665/− 3.136	−0.853/− 0.853	−2.076/− 2.861
Baloda	−3.368/− 3.13	−1.411/− 1.492	−2.67/− 2.517	−1.132/− 0.945	−1.658/− 2.166*
Champa	−5.258/− 4.586	−2.332/− 2.685	−4.536/− 4.491	−1.472/− 1.24	−2.438/− 3.53
Dabhra	−3.232/− 3.49	−0.132/− 0.167	−2.987/− 3.036	−0.447/− 0.555	−1.651/− 2.327*
Jaijaipur	−4.598/− 4.137	−1.436/− 1.827	−4.394/− 4.448	−1.132/− 0.968	−2.123/− 3.12
Janjgir	−4.487/− 4.229	−1.88/− 1.835	−4.081/− 3.351	−1.066/− 0.935	−2.298/− 3.178
Malkharoda	−4.062/− 3.656	−0.842/− 1.296	−3.783/− 3.749	−0.857/− 0.857	−2.184/− 3.288
Nawagarh	−4.986/− 5.037	−2.348/− 2.702	−4.552/− 4.605	−1.227/− 1.052	−2.126/− 2.542
Pamgarh	−4.457/− 3.924	−2.488/− 2.461	−4.171/− 3.682	−1.116/− 1.116	−2.346/− 2.696
Sakti	−5.063/− 4.375	−1.581/− 2.042*	−4.35/− 3.758	−1.175/− 1.018	−2.754/− 3.977
Bagicha	−4.546/− 4.873	−3.049/− 3.345	−3.636/− 3.893	−1.384/− 1.17	−3.194/− 4.097
Duldula	−2.391/− 2.027	−1.3/− 1.466	−1.586/− 1.102	−0.932/− 0.807	−2.658/− 2.662
Farsabahar	−3.781/− 4.423	−2.354/− 2.903	−2.856/− 2.856	−1.86/− 1.641	−3.28/− 3.605
Jashpur	−2.016/− 3.631	−0.633/− 1.881	−1.189/− 1.555	−0.767/− 0.675	−2.77/− 2.259
Kansabel	−3.792/− 4.357	−2.84/− 2.626	−2.76/− 2.76	−1.656/− 1.422	−3.094/− 3.601
Kunkuri	−3.318/− 3.789	−2.307/− 2.101	−2.379/− 2.379	−1.25/− 1.058	−2.926/− 3.551
Manora	−4.121/− 3.538	−2.259/− 6.06	−3.225/− 3.855	−1.107/− 0.977	−3.28/− 3.627
Pathalgaon	−4.04/− 4.239	−2.661/− 2.984	−3.119/− 3.579	−1.74/− 1.514	−3.343/− 3.379
Bodla	−0.937/− 1.013	−1.583/− 1.583	−0.327/− 0.274	−0.78/− 0.679	−2.259/− 3.015
Kawardha	−1.588/− 1.588	−1.964/− 1.964	−0.451/− 0.451	−0.794/− 0.794	−2.316/− 2.978
Pandariya	−1.356/− 1.356	−1.665/− 1.88	−0.708/− 0.868	−0.873/− 0.873	−2.023/− 2.53
Sahaspur Lohara	−0.935/− 0.935	−1.976/− 2.158	0.195/0.166	−0.921/− 1.058	−2.69/− 3.752
Bade Rajpur	−1.737/− 1.632	−0.147/− 0.142	−1.586/− 1.383	0.699/0.699	−2.099/− 2.096
Farasgaon	−1.808/− 1.457	−1.944/− 1.801	−1.375/− 1.465	0.209/0.209	−2.527/− 2.527
Keskal	−1.685/− 1.348	−0.762/− 0.669	−1.647/− 1.474	0.463/0.463	−2.392/− 2.391
Kondagaon	−3.182/− 3.326	−2.747/− 2.357	−2.443/− 2.443	−0.202/− 0.202	−1.844/− 3.221*
Makdi	−2.064/− 2.202	−1.216/− 1.388	−1.504/− 1.321	0.311/0.311	−2.208/− 2.207
Kartala	−4.865/− 4.853	−1.674/− 1.602	−4.33/− 3.561	−1.316/− 1.076	−2.926/− 2.78
Katghora	−3.731/− 3.042	−1.599/− 1.974*	−2.962/− 2.686	−1.148/− 0.965	−2.032/− 2.189
Korba	−4.668/− 4.624	−1.885/− 2.302*	−4.208/− 4.539	−1.218/− 1.042	−2.275/− 2.107
Pali	−2.729/− 2.446	−1.561/− 1.53	−2.035*/− 1.852	−0.851/− 1.011	−1.724/− 2.051*
Poundi-Uproda	−3.815/− 3.022	−1.69/− 1.685	−3.244/− 2.801	−0.692/− 0.826	−2.141/− 2.554
Baikunthpur	−5.405/− 5.405	−2.527/− 2.994	−4.877/− 5.902	−0.842/− 0.842	−2.94/− 2.475
Bharatpur	−4.169/− 4.169	−2.075/− 2.125	−3.532/− 3.984	−0.719/− 0.604	−3.269/− 5.825
Khadganva	−4.625/− 5.902	−2.382/− 3.138	−4.155/− 5.471	−0.597/− 0.597	−2.996/− 2.546
Manendragarh	−4.26/− 4.26	−2.86/− 3.417	−3.375/− 4.185	−0.404/− 0.34	−3.328/− 3.04
Sonhat	−4.373/− 4.618	−2.94/− 3.848	−3.917/− 4.743	−0.116/− 0.116	−3.303/− 3.293
Bagbahra	−2.345/− 2.561	−2.897/− 3.056	−1.69/− 2.064*	−1.334/− 1.334	−2.581/− 3.751
Basna	−4.214/− 3.479	−1.354/− 1.499	−4.112/− 3.265	−0.912/− 0.912	−1.597/− 2.359*
Mahasamund	−3.391/− 2.429	−3.402/− 3.459	−2.733/− 3.272	−1.899/− 1.899	−2.616/− 2.943
Pithora	−3.858/− 3.378	−2.343/− 2.146	−3.377/− 2.962	−1.329/− 1.329	−2.042/− 2.454
Saraipali	−3.482/− 2.492	−0.191/− 0.208	−3.405/− 2.573	−0.558/− 0.488	−1.363/− 1.914
Lormi	−0.801/− 0.801	−0.823/− 1.383	−0.458/− 0.41	−0.755/− 0.916	−1.511/− 2.14*
Mungeli	−2.214/− 2.214	−1.83/− 1.697	−1.787/− 1.543	−0.758/− 0.903	−1.735/− 2.561*
Pathariya	−2.822/− 2.822	−1.647/− 1.752	−2.35*/− 1.873	−0.694/− 0.738	−1.69/− 2.14*
Narayanpur	−2.4/− 2.4	−3.282/− 2.905	−1.481/− 1.798	−0.284/− 0.284	−2.357/− 2.781
Orchha	−1.191/− 1.166	−3.341/− 2.612	−0.229/− 0.229	0.045/0.045	−2.734/− 3.404
Baramkela	−2.298*/− 1.453	0.184/0.421	−2.357*/− 1.817	−0.299/− 0.299	−1.651/− 2.23*
Gharghoda	−4.434/− 3.945	−0.547/− 1.091	−4.33/− 3.761	−0.857/− 0.857	−2.393/− 2.216
Kharsia	−4.326/− 3.759	−0.508/− 3.702*	−3.972/− 3.134	−0.653/− 0.699	−2.366/− 2.27
Lailunga	−4.453/− 4.757	−1.252/− 1.373	−4.112/− 4.384	−1.495/− 1.328	−2.631/− 2.275
Pusour	−2.908/− 2.221	0.297/0.466	−2.965/− 3.119	0.095/0.095	−1.472/− 1.929
Raigarh	−3.627/− 2.504	0.415/1.139	−3.704/− 2.288	−0.143/− 0.143	−1.66/− 1.773
Sarangarh	−3.196/− 2.769	−0.47/− 0.484	−3.028/− 2.879	−0.599/− 0.599	−1.644/− 2.296*
Tamnar	−4.246/− 3.725	0.147/0.341	−4.221/− 3.883	−0.71/− 0.71	−2.091*/− 1.913
Udaipur (Dharamjaigarh)	−4.806/− 5.684	−1.937/− 4.581*	−4.471/− 4.812	−1.107/− 1.107	−2.892/− 2.699
Abhanpur	−3.951/− 3.537	−2.593/− 2.474	−3.455/− 2.976	−1.127/− 1.488	−2.205/− 2.099
Arang	−3.876/− 3.666	−2.724/− 2.468	−3.198/− 2.703	−1.556/− 1.814	−2.353/− 2.336
Raipur	−3.543/− 3.757	−1.365/− 1.701	−2.987/− 2.987	−1.121/− 1.319	−1.733/− 1.779
Tilda	−4.543/− 4.496	−2.216/− 2.959	−4.008/− 4.201	−1.434/− 1.625	−2.542/− 3.283
Ambagarh	−2.518/− 2.457	−1.724/− 1.87	−1.59/− 1.59	−1.343/− 1.55	−1.978/− 3.127
Chhuikhadan	−3.384/− 2.971	−2.688/− 2.991	−2.407/− 2.064	−1.277/− 1.097	−2.618/− 3.372
Chhuriya	−2.731/− 3.33	−1.486/− 1.417	−2.003*/− 1.747	−1.093/− 1.312	−1.767/− 2.19*
Dongargaon	−2.137/− 2.137	−1.17/− 0.87	−1.604/− 1.604	−0.86/− 0.868	−1.574/− 2.243*
Dongargarh	−2.96/− 4.927	−2.032*/− 1.491	−1.919/− 1.919	−1.143/− 1.03	−1.914/− 2.859*
Khairagarh	−3.08/− 2.791	−2.736/− 3.01	−1.994*/− 1.785	−1.461/− 1.266	−2.484/− 3.17
Manpur	0.084/0.084	−2.493/− 2.643	0.957/1.069	−0.617/− 0.796	−2.827/− 3.037
Mohla	−0.796/− 0.796	−2.171*/− 1.858	0.204/0.204	−0.708/− 1.16	−2.503/− 2.667
Rajnandgaon	−2.023/− 2.023	−1.896/− 1.472	−1.336/− 1.336	−0.796/− 0.781	−1.953/− 1.834
Chhindgarh	−1.388/− 1.177	−2.264/− 2.264	−0.694/− 0.508	0.025/0.027	−1.772/− 1.695
Konta	3.62/3.862	−4.521/− 4.521	5.616/9.676	−1.878/− 2.261*	−2.917/− 2.917
Sukma	−0.213/− 0.192	−3.727/− 3.196	1.225/1.105	−0.764/− 0.764	−3.321/− 2.799
Bhaiyathan	−4.616/− 4.616	−0.989/− 1.066	−4.385/− 5.002	−0.42/− 0.502	−1.921/− 2.394*
Oudgi	−4.273/− 4.9	−2.334/− 2.554	−3.808/− 4.727	−0.771/− 0.931	−2.899/− 3.476
Pratappur	−4.094/− 3.621	−2.044*/− 1.923	−3.423/− 3.324	−1.091/− 0.984	−2.897/− 3.402
Premnagar	−5.011/− 5.011	−1.068/− 1.341	−4.992/− 4.992	−0.485/− 0.487	−2.048*/− 1.743
Ramanujnagar	−5.435/− 5.435	−1.422/− 1.515	−5.265/− 5.265	−0.576/− 0.729	−2.246*/− 1.921
Surajpur	−4.437/− 3.835	−0.424/− 0.437	−4.416/− 5.161	−0.061/− 0.059	−1.601/− 1.667
Ambikapur	−4.688/− 4.688	−1.22/− 1.239	−4.475/− 4.475	−0.474/− 0.401	−2.282/− 2.084
Batouli	−5.047/− 5.354	−3.189/− 4.722	−4.273/− 4.548	−1.477/− 1.26	−3.266/− 4.014
Lakhanpur	−4.734/− 4.734	−0.812/− 1.02	−4.625/− 5.283	−0.132/− 0.126	−1.842/− 1.848
Lundra	−5.142/− 5.115	−2.77/− 2.778	−4.502/− 4.931	−1.254/− 1.171	−3.316/− 2.98
Mainpat	−5.389/− 5.729	−2.863/− 3.304	−4.704/− 4.999	−1.068/− 0.909	−2.935/− 2.982
Sitapur	−4.575/− 4.175	−3.393/− 3.893	−3.595/− 3.813	−1.599/− 1.356	−3.157/− 3.778
Udaypur	−5.113/− 5.799	−1.22/− 2.056*	−5.09/− 5.878	−0.68/− 0.679	−1.892/− 2.351*
Antagarh	−1.032/− 0.931	−2.103*/− 1.468	−0.447/− 0.385	0.32/0.32	−2.677/− 3.199
Bhanupratappur	−1.082/− 1.144	−1.96/− 1.768	−0.617/− 0.698	0.025/0.025	−2.395/− 2.498
Charama	−2.94/− 2.57	−1.064/− 1.062	−2.574/− 2.352	0.22/0.22	−1.898/− 2.12*
Durgkondal	0.268/0.268	−2.615/− 2.499	1.288/1.453	−0.567/− 0.815	−3.059/− 3.538
Kanker	−2.325/− 2.48	−1.243/− 1.243	−2.189/− 2.069	0.395/0.395	−2.019/− 2.012
Narharpur	−2.942/− 2.746	−1.062/− 0.93	−2.556/− 2.353	−0.066/− 0.068	−2.164/− 2.223
Pakhanjur	−0.125/− 0.096	−2.18*/− 1.846	0.656/0.552	−0.12/− 0.122	−3.137/− 3.971

Stations	Annual	Pre-Monsoon	Monsoon	Post-Monsoon	Winter
Stations	MMK	MMK	MMK	MMK	MMK
Balod	−3.221/− 2.908	−1.722/− 1.901	−2.729/− 2.925	−0.397/− 0.462	−2.156/− 2.549
Dondi	−1.522/− 1.347	−1.547/− 1.57	−0.905/− 0.837	0.041/0.047	−2.177/− 2.991
Dondi Luhara	−1.649/− 1.572	−1.404/− 1.1	−1.331/− 1.258	−0.508/− 0.578	−1.89/− 3.742*
Gunderdehi	−2.309/− 2.06	−0.975/− 0.631	−1.855/− 1.673	−0.263/− 0.341	−1.953/− 1.875
Gurur	−2.504/− 2.648	−0.826/− 1.249	−2.062*/− 1.939	−0.347/− 0.426	−1.965/− 2.602
Baloda Bazar	−4.187/− 4.643	−2.395/− 3.707	−3.713/− 4.016	−1.429/− 1.429	−2.575/− 3.886
Bhatapara	−4.571/− 4.137	−2.434/− 2.937	−4.185/− 3.672	−1.413/− 1.413	−2.797/− 3.481
Bilaigarh	−4.602/− 5.139	−1.586/− 1.483	−4.439/− 3.853	−1.096/− 0.955	−1.79/− 2.066*
Kasdol	−4.48/− 4.451	−2.672/− 2.755	−4.108/− 3.929	−1.522/− 1.522	−2.364/− 2.92
Palari	−3.872/− 4.528	−2.33/− 3	−3.697/− 3.345	−1.683/− 1.862	−2.857/− 4.256
Simga	−4.212/− 4.174	−2.506/− 4.29	−3.831/− 3.831	−1.366/− 1.592	−2.838/− 4.365
Balrampur	−4.319/− 3.756	−2.044*/− 1.745	−3.57/− 4.485	−0.558/− 0.558	−3.886/− 2.994
Rajpur	−4.815/− 4.663	−2.03/− 2.12	−4.18/− 4.016	−1.08/− 1.04	−3.185/− 2.505
Ramanujganj	−3.675/− 4.013	−2.207/− 3.446	−2.885/− 2.773	−0.862/− 1.306	−4.208/− 4.255
Samri (Kusmi)	−5.841/− 4.942	−2.286/− 2.713	−5.187/− 4.589	−1.116/− 1.243	−3.779/− 4.515
Shankargarh	−5.029/− 4.617	−3.08/− 3.174	−4.185/− 4.987	−1.209/− 1.144	−3.999/− 3.583
Wadrafnagar	−3.398/− 3.821	−2.366/− 2.011	−2.656/− 2.859	−0.796/− 1.197	−3.872/− 4.776
Bakavand	−1.57/− 1.591	−0.633/− 0.633	−0.982/− 0.843	−0.272/− 0.272	−1.975/− 3.368
Bastanar	−2.23*/− 1.889	−0.597/− 0.597	−1.42/− 1.057	−0.535/− 0.535	−1.094/− 1.746
Bastar	−1.946/− 1.946	0.229/0.229	−1.186/− 1.011	−0.025/− 0.025	−1.425/− 2.589*
Darbha	−1.586/− 1.31	0.531/0.618	−1.204/− 0.942	−0.032/− 0.029	−0.998/− 1.638
Jagdalpur	−2.67/− 2.67	0.572/0.715	−2.175*/− 1.939	−0.293/− 0.293	−0.88/− 1.44
Lohandiguda	−2.633/− 2.235	−0.628/− 0.628	−1.828/− 1.382	−0.408/− 0.408	−1.015/− 1.678
Tokapal	−1.458/− 1.222	1.549/1.761	−1.025/− 0.83	−0.399/− 0.399	−1.076/− 1.873
Bemetara	−2.865/− 2.84	−2.212/− 3.304	−2.116/− 2.116	−0.946/− 0.946	−2.788/− 3.893
Berla	−2.311/− 2.311	−1.527/− 3.535*	−1.481/− 1.481	−0.676/− 0.598	−2.629/− 3.791
Nawagarh	−3.228/− 3.228	−2.08/− 14.828	−2.881/− 2.881	−0.987/− 0.987	−2.25/− 3.665
Saja	−0.245/− 0.245	−1.987*/− 1.595	0.667/0.667	−1.334/− 1.334	−3.058/− 4.701
Thanakhamria	−1.15/− 1.15	−1.899/− 2.178*	−0.064/− 0.064	−1.109/− 1.109	−2.94/− 4.136
Bhairamgarh	−0.401/− 0.401	−4.747/− 4.258	0.635/0.553	−0.374/− 0.374	−2.528/− 2.527
Bhopalpattnam	2.892/2.829	−2.368/− 2.368	3.348/3.947	1.021/1.021	−2.601/− 3.222
Bijapur	2.779/3.724	−3.684/− 3.307	3.468/3.336	0.141/0.141	−2.356/− 2.65
Usur	4.566/6.582	−1.413/− 1.692	4.99/6.377	0.755/0.755	−1.461/− 1.461
Bilaspur	−2.833/− 3.011	−1.304/− 1.374	−2.488/− 2.046	−0.921/− 1.111	−1.699/− 2.311*
Bilha	−3.21/− 2.541	−1.527/− 1.937	−2.808/− 2.209	−0.737/− 0.78	−1.973/− 2.754
Kota	−1.749/− 1.749	−1.447/− 1.699	−1.59/− 1.679	−0.617/− 0.756	−1.606/− 2.003*
Marwahi	−1.76/− 2.149*	−0.982/− 1.202	−1.032/− 1.215	−0.59/− 0.494	−1.905/− 2.249*
Masturi	−3.389/− 4.07	−1.613/− 1.588	−3.064/− 2.617	−1.184/− 1.402	−2.173/− 2.415
Pendra	−0.937/− 1.358	−0.519/− 0.709	−0.42/− 0.504	−0.436/− 0.436	−1.54/− 1.839
Pendra Road	−0.848/− 1.012	0.331/0.855	−0.576/− 0.558	−0.658/− 0.781	−1.25/− 1.506
Takhatpur	−1.815/− 1.815	−1.454/− 1.886	−1.715/− 1.715	−0.479/− 0.511	−1.472/− 1.82
Dantewada	−1.996/− 1.996	−4.559/− 5.028	−0.753/− 0.631	−0.653/− 0.653	−1.697/− 1.697
Gidam	−3.241/− 3.241	−4.235/− 3.914	−2.098*/− 1.785	−0.953/− 0.953	−1.419/− 1.418
Katekalyan	−1.37/− 1.199	−2.579/− 2.579	−0.411/− 0.317	−0.17/− 0.158	−1.818/− 2.137*
Kuakonda	1.123/1.157	−3.709/− 3.268	2.164/2.164	0/0	−2.562/− 2.561
Dhamtari	−2.717/− 2.446	−1.116/− 1.382	−2.148/− 1.995	−0.277/− 0.287	−2.075/− 2.716
Kurud	−3.643/− 3.643	−2.087/− 2.149	−2.849/− 2.849	−1.005/− 1.174	−2.145*/− 1.877
Magarlod	−3.325/− 3.325	−2.416/− 2.516	−2.518/− 2.518	−1.173/− 1.05	−2.504/− 2.616
Nagri	−2.91/− 2.91	−1.427/− 1.37	−2.325/− 2.325	−0.719/− 0.646	−2.464/− 2.782
Dhamdha	−1.404/− 1.252	−1.558/− 1.279	−0.823/− 0.752	−0.817/− 0.715	−2.418/− 2.753
Durg	−1.733/− 1.717	−1.685/− 0.874	−1.132/− 1.132	−0.665/− 0.684	−1.971*/− 1.894
Patan	−2.35/− 2.35	−0.742/− 0.759	−1.93/− 1.93	−0.667/− 0.698	−1.39/− 1.734
Bindranavagarh	−3.377/− 3.723	−2.404/− 3.173	−2.715/− 2.98	−1.082/− 1.126	−2.818/− 3.126
Chhura	−3.296/− 3.535	−2.631/− 2.627	−2.715/− 2.548	−1.384/− 1.442	−2.767/− 3.925
Deobhog	−1.109/− 0.926	−1.048/− 1.455	−0.497/− 0.447	−1.481/− 1.303	−1.089/− 1.043
Mainpur	−2.713/− 2.806	−1.27/− 1.473	−1.821/− 1.401	−1.073/− 0.961	−1.849/− 1.603
Rajim	−3.577/− 3.027	−3.101/− 3.671	−2.885/− 2.318	−1.502/− 1.562	−2.743/− 3.045
Akaltara	−4.058/− 3.268	−1.611/− 2.304*	−3.665/− 3.136	−0.853/− 0.853	−2.076/− 2.861
Baloda	−3.368/− 3.13	−1.411/− 1.492	−2.67/− 2.517	−1.132/− 0.945	−1.658/− 2.166*
Champa	−5.258/− 4.586	−2.332/− 2.685	−4.536/− 4.491	−1.472/− 1.24	−2.438/− 3.53
Dabhra	−3.232/− 3.49	−0.132/− 0.167	−2.987/− 3.036	−0.447/− 0.555	−1.651/− 2.327*
Jaijaipur	−4.598/− 4.137	−1.436/− 1.827	−4.394/− 4.448	−1.132/− 0.968	−2.123/− 3.12
Janjgir	−4.487/− 4.229	−1.88/− 1.835	−4.081/− 3.351	−1.066/− 0.935	−2.298/− 3.178
Malkharoda	−4.062/− 3.656	−0.842/− 1.296	−3.783/− 3.749	−0.857/− 0.857	−2.184/− 3.288
Nawagarh	−4.986/− 5.037	−2.348/− 2.702	−4.552/− 4.605	−1.227/− 1.052	−2.126/− 2.542
Pamgarh	−4.457/− 3.924	−2.488/− 2.461	−4.171/− 3.682	−1.116/− 1.116	−2.346/− 2.696
Sakti	−5.063/− 4.375	−1.581/− 2.042*	−4.35/− 3.758	−1.175/− 1.018	−2.754/− 3.977
Bagicha	−4.546/− 4.873	−3.049/− 3.345	−3.636/− 3.893	−1.384/− 1.17	−3.194/− 4.097
Duldula	−2.391/− 2.027	−1.3/− 1.466	−1.586/− 1.102	−0.932/− 0.807	−2.658/− 2.662
Farsabahar	−3.781/− 4.423	−2.354/− 2.903	−2.856/− 2.856	−1.86/− 1.641	−3.28/− 3.605
Jashpur	−2.016/− 3.631	−0.633/− 1.881	−1.189/− 1.555	−0.767/− 0.675	−2.77/− 2.259
Kansabel	−3.792/− 4.357	−2.84/− 2.626	−2.76/− 2.76	−1.656/− 1.422	−3.094/− 3.601
Kunkuri	−3.318/− 3.789	−2.307/− 2.101	−2.379/− 2.379	−1.25/− 1.058	−2.926/− 3.551
Manora	−4.121/− 3.538	−2.259/− 6.06	−3.225/− 3.855	−1.107/− 0.977	−3.28/− 3.627
Pathalgaon	−4.04/− 4.239	−2.661/− 2.984	−3.119/− 3.579	−1.74/− 1.514	−3.343/− 3.379
Bodla	−0.937/− 1.013	−1.583/− 1.583	−0.327/− 0.274	−0.78/− 0.679	−2.259/− 3.015
Kawardha	−1.588/− 1.588	−1.964/− 1.964	−0.451/− 0.451	−0.794/− 0.794	−2.316/− 2.978
Pandariya	−1.356/− 1.356	−1.665/− 1.88	−0.708/− 0.868	−0.873/− 0.873	−2.023/− 2.53
Sahaspur Lohara	−0.935/− 0.935	−1.976/− 2.158	0.195/0.166	−0.921/− 1.058	−2.69/− 3.752
Bade Rajpur	−1.737/− 1.632	−0.147/− 0.142	−1.586/− 1.383	0.699/0.699	−2.099/− 2.096
Farasgaon	−1.808/− 1.457	−1.944/− 1.801	−1.375/− 1.465	0.209/0.209	−2.527/− 2.527
Keskal	−1.685/− 1.348	−0.762/− 0.669	−1.647/− 1.474	0.463/0.463	−2.392/− 2.391
Kondagaon	−3.182/− 3.326	−2.747/− 2.357	−2.443/− 2.443	−0.202/− 0.202	−1.844/− 3.221*
Makdi	−2.064/− 2.202	−1.216/− 1.388	−1.504/− 1.321	0.311/0.311	−2.208/− 2.207
Kartala	−4.865/− 4.853	−1.674/− 1.602	−4.33/− 3.561	−1.316/− 1.076	−2.926/− 2.78
Katghora	−3.731/− 3.042	−1.599/− 1.974*	−2.962/− 2.686	−1.148/− 0.965	−2.032/− 2.189
Korba	−4.668/− 4.624	−1.885/− 2.302*	−4.208/− 4.539	−1.218/− 1.042	−2.275/− 2.107
Pali	−2.729/− 2.446	−1.561/− 1.53	−2.035*/− 1.852	−0.851/− 1.011	−1.724/− 2.051*
Poundi-Uproda	−3.815/− 3.022	−1.69/− 1.685	−3.244/− 2.801	−0.692/− 0.826	−2.141/− 2.554
Baikunthpur	−5.405/− 5.405	−2.527/− 2.994	−4.877/− 5.902	−0.842/− 0.842	−2.94/− 2.475
Bharatpur	−4.169/− 4.169	−2.075/− 2.125	−3.532/− 3.984	−0.719/− 0.604	−3.269/− 5.825
Khadganva	−4.625/− 5.902	−2.382/− 3.138	−4.155/− 5.471	−0.597/− 0.597	−2.996/− 2.546
Manendragarh	−4.26/− 4.26	−2.86/− 3.417	−3.375/− 4.185	−0.404/− 0.34	−3.328/− 3.04
Sonhat	−4.373/− 4.618	−2.94/− 3.848	−3.917/− 4.743	−0.116/− 0.116	−3.303/− 3.293
Bagbahra	−2.345/− 2.561	−2.897/− 3.056	−1.69/− 2.064*	−1.334/− 1.334	−2.581/− 3.751
Basna	−4.214/− 3.479	−1.354/− 1.499	−4.112/− 3.265	−0.912/− 0.912	−1.597/− 2.359*
Mahasamund	−3.391/− 2.429	−3.402/− 3.459	−2.733/− 3.272	−1.899/− 1.899	−2.616/− 2.943
Pithora	−3.858/− 3.378	−2.343/− 2.146	−3.377/− 2.962	−1.329/− 1.329	−2.042/− 2.454
Saraipali	−3.482/− 2.492	−0.191/− 0.208	−3.405/− 2.573	−0.558/− 0.488	−1.363/− 1.914
Lormi	−0.801/− 0.801	−0.823/− 1.383	−0.458/− 0.41	−0.755/− 0.916	−1.511/− 2.14*
Mungeli	−2.214/− 2.214	−1.83/− 1.697	−1.787/− 1.543	−0.758/− 0.903	−1.735/− 2.561*
Pathariya	−2.822/− 2.822	−1.647/− 1.752	−2.35*/− 1.873	−0.694/− 0.738	−1.69/− 2.14*
Narayanpur	−2.4/− 2.4	−3.282/− 2.905	−1.481/− 1.798	−0.284/− 0.284	−2.357/− 2.781
Orchha	−1.191/− 1.166	−3.341/− 2.612	−0.229/− 0.229	0.045/0.045	−2.734/− 3.404
Baramkela	−2.298*/− 1.453	0.184/0.421	−2.357*/− 1.817	−0.299/− 0.299	−1.651/− 2.23*
Gharghoda	−4.434/− 3.945	−0.547/− 1.091	−4.33/− 3.761	−0.857/− 0.857	−2.393/− 2.216
Kharsia	−4.326/− 3.759	−0.508/− 3.702*	−3.972/− 3.134	−0.653/− 0.699	−2.366/− 2.27
Lailunga	−4.453/− 4.757	−1.252/− 1.373	−4.112/− 4.384	−1.495/− 1.328	−2.631/− 2.275
Pusour	−2.908/− 2.221	0.297/0.466	−2.965/− 3.119	0.095/0.095	−1.472/− 1.929
Raigarh	−3.627/− 2.504	0.415/1.139	−3.704/− 2.288	−0.143/− 0.143	−1.66/− 1.773
Sarangarh	−3.196/− 2.769	−0.47/− 0.484	−3.028/− 2.879	−0.599/− 0.599	−1.644/− 2.296*
Tamnar	−4.246/− 3.725	0.147/0.341	−4.221/− 3.883	−0.71/− 0.71	−2.091*/− 1.913
Udaipur (Dharamjaigarh)	−4.806/− 5.684	−1.937/− 4.581*	−4.471/− 4.812	−1.107/− 1.107	−2.892/− 2.699
Abhanpur	−3.951/− 3.537	−2.593/− 2.474	−3.455/− 2.976	−1.127/− 1.488	−2.205/− 2.099
Arang	−3.876/− 3.666	−2.724/− 2.468	−3.198/− 2.703	−1.556/− 1.814	−2.353/− 2.336
Raipur	−3.543/− 3.757	−1.365/− 1.701	−2.987/− 2.987	−1.121/− 1.319	−1.733/− 1.779
Tilda	−4.543/− 4.496	−2.216/− 2.959	−4.008/− 4.201	−1.434/− 1.625	−2.542/− 3.283
Ambagarh	−2.518/− 2.457	−1.724/− 1.87	−1.59/− 1.59	−1.343/− 1.55	−1.978/− 3.127
Chhuikhadan	−3.384/− 2.971	−2.688/− 2.991	−2.407/− 2.064	−1.277/− 1.097	−2.618/− 3.372
Chhuriya	−2.731/− 3.33	−1.486/− 1.417	−2.003*/− 1.747	−1.093/− 1.312	−1.767/− 2.19*
Dongargaon	−2.137/− 2.137	−1.17/− 0.87	−1.604/− 1.604	−0.86/− 0.868	−1.574/− 2.243*
Dongargarh	−2.96/− 4.927	−2.032*/− 1.491	−1.919/− 1.919	−1.143/− 1.03	−1.914/− 2.859*
Khairagarh	−3.08/− 2.791	−2.736/− 3.01	−1.994*/− 1.785	−1.461/− 1.266	−2.484/− 3.17
Manpur	0.084/0.084	−2.493/− 2.643	0.957/1.069	−0.617/− 0.796	−2.827/− 3.037
Mohla	−0.796/− 0.796	−2.171*/− 1.858	0.204/0.204	−0.708/− 1.16	−2.503/− 2.667
Rajnandgaon	−2.023/− 2.023	−1.896/− 1.472	−1.336/− 1.336	−0.796/− 0.781	−1.953/− 1.834
Chhindgarh	−1.388/− 1.177	−2.264/− 2.264	−0.694/− 0.508	0.025/0.027	−1.772/− 1.695
Konta	3.62/3.862	−4.521/− 4.521	5.616/9.676	−1.878/− 2.261*	−2.917/− 2.917
Sukma	−0.213/− 0.192	−3.727/− 3.196	1.225/1.105	−0.764/− 0.764	−3.321/− 2.799
Bhaiyathan	−4.616/− 4.616	−0.989/− 1.066	−4.385/− 5.002	−0.42/− 0.502	−1.921/− 2.394*
Oudgi	−4.273/− 4.9	−2.334/− 2.554	−3.808/− 4.727	−0.771/− 0.931	−2.899/− 3.476
Pratappur	−4.094/− 3.621	−2.044*/− 1.923	−3.423/− 3.324	−1.091/− 0.984	−2.897/− 3.402
Premnagar	−5.011/− 5.011	−1.068/− 1.341	−4.992/− 4.992	−0.485/− 0.487	−2.048*/− 1.743
Ramanujnagar	−5.435/− 5.435	−1.422/− 1.515	−5.265/− 5.265	−0.576/− 0.729	−2.246*/− 1.921
Surajpur	−4.437/− 3.835	−0.424/− 0.437	−4.416/− 5.161	−0.061/− 0.059	−1.601/− 1.667
Ambikapur	−4.688/− 4.688	−1.22/− 1.239	−4.475/− 4.475	−0.474/− 0.401	−2.282/− 2.084
Batouli	−5.047/− 5.354	−3.189/− 4.722	−4.273/− 4.548	−1.477/− 1.26	−3.266/− 4.014
Lakhanpur	−4.734/− 4.734	−0.812/− 1.02	−4.625/− 5.283	−0.132/− 0.126	−1.842/− 1.848
Lundra	−5.142/− 5.115	−2.77/− 2.778	−4.502/− 4.931	−1.254/− 1.171	−3.316/− 2.98
Mainpat	−5.389/− 5.729	−2.863/− 3.304	−4.704/− 4.999	−1.068/− 0.909	−2.935/− 2.982
Sitapur	−4.575/− 4.175	−3.393/− 3.893	−3.595/− 3.813	−1.599/− 1.356	−3.157/− 3.778
Udaypur	−5.113/− 5.799	−1.22/− 2.056*	−5.09/− 5.878	−0.68/− 0.679	−1.892/− 2.351*
Antagarh	−1.032/− 0.931	−2.103*/− 1.468	−0.447/− 0.385	0.32/0.32	−2.677/− 3.199
Bhanupratappur	−1.082/− 1.144	−1.96/− 1.768	−0.617/− 0.698	0.025/0.025	−2.395/− 2.498
Charama	−2.94/− 2.57	−1.064/− 1.062	−2.574/− 2.352	0.22/0.22	−1.898/− 2.12*
Durgkondal	0.268/0.268	−2.615/− 2.499	1.288/1.453	−0.567/− 0.815	−3.059/− 3.538
Kanker	−2.325/− 2.48	−1.243/− 1.243	−2.189/− 2.069	0.395/0.395	−2.019/− 2.012
Narharpur	−2.942/− 2.746	−1.062/− 0.93	−2.556/− 2.353	−0.066/− 0.068	−2.164/− 2.223
Pakhanjur	−0.125/− 0.096	−2.18*/− 1.846	0.656/0.552	−0.12/− 0.122	−3.137/− 3.971

*Shows negative significant (at 5% significant level).

**Shows positive significant (at 5% significant level).

Trend analysis after change point (1962–2020)

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For the period 1962–2020 (Table 2), positive trends (significant and non-significant) were shown in 62 stations, except at 87 stations in the annual season, of which 8/10 stations showed significant positive trends and 2/7 stations showed significant negative trends. In the pre-monsoon time step 111 stations showed positive trends (significant and non-significant) among those stations, the trend was significant in 5/3 stations, and the rest were negative trends (non-significant). In the monsoon season, 62 stations showed positive trends (significant and non-significant) and 87 showed negative trends (significant and non-significant), of which 13/14 stations showed a significant positive and 3/13 stations showed significant trends. For post-monsoon seasons, 108 stations found positive trends and the rest had negative trends, of which three blocks, viz. Ramanujganj, Wadrafnagar and Khairagarh, showed significant negative trends. In the winter seasons 62 stations showed positive trends and the rest of the stations showed negative trends. In contrast, a significant positive trend was noticed in Manendragarh block only while a significant negative trend was noticed in 1/3 blocks (Wadrafnagar, Makdi and Bakavand).

Magnitude of trend

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The Theil–Sen slope method was used to estimate the magnitude of the trend at each block for annual and seasonal time scales and the values of the magnitude of trends are represented in Table 4. Figure 6 shows a box plot of the TSS values for annual and seasonal rainfall time series from (a) 1901 to 2020, (b) 1901 to 1961, and (c) 1962 to 2020 of the state of Chhattisgarh. The central line in the box represents the median, and the upper and lower lines represent the 75th and 25th percentile, respectively. As per the analysis of annual rainfall from 1901 to 2020, a majority of the blocks in Chhattisgarh state showed a negative value of magnitude in trend or a decline in available rainfall, whereas an increasing annual rainfall was noticed in seven blocks (Bhopalpattnam, Bijapur, Usur, Kuakona, Manpur, Konta, and Durgkondal). During the period of 1901–2020, the maximum increase of annual rainfall was noticed in the Usur block with a rate of 4.61 mm year⁻¹ and a maximum decrease in annual rainfall was noticed in the Samri (Kusmi) block with a rate of decrease of 4.83 mm year⁻¹. A similar pattern was noticed in the monsoon season. In pre- and post-monsoon time series, the maximum increase of rainfall was 0.25 and 0.17 mm year⁻¹ respectively. During winter all the stations showed a decline in rainfall ranging from −0.44 to −0.02 mm year⁻¹.

Table 4

Sen's slope of annual and seasonal rainfall for Chhattisgarh State during 1901–2020, 1901–1961 and 1962–2020

Station	Sen's slope during 1901–2020					Sen's slope during 1901–1961					Sen's slope during 1962–2020
Station	Annual	Pre-Mon	Monsoon	Post-Mon	Winter	Annual	Pre-Mon	Monsoon	Post-Mon	Winter	Annual	Pre-Mon	Monsoon	Post-Mon	Winter
Balod	−2.52	−0.16	−1.75	−0.04	−0.09	0.87	−0.09	1.49	0.68	−0.25	0.98	0.44	0.01	0.19	0.04
Dondi	−1.05	−0.12	−0.57	0.00	−0.11	4.55	0.11	3.94	0.68	−0.18	2.14	0.33	1.55	0.33	0.03
Dondi Luhara	−1.19	−0.13	−0.80	−0.06	−0.12	4.33	0.12	3.48	0.53	−0.25	3.07	0.60	1.03	0.33	0.18
Gunderdehi	−1.60	−0.07	−1.10	−0.02	−0.09	2.84	−0.01	2.55	0.55	−0.28	1.73	0.54	0.28	0.24	0.19
Gurur	−1.62	−0.07	−1.02	−0.03	−0.09	1.13	0.00	1.56	0.44	−0.21	−0.12	0.33	−0.74	0.28	0.05
Baloda Bazar	−2.73	−0.12	−2.18	−0.14	−0.16	1.92	−0.22	2.85	0.23	−0.31	0.09	0.17	−0.41	0.08	0.04
Bhatapara	−3.48	−0.14	−2.84	−0.12	−0.17	2.38	−0.13	2.71	0.36	−0.30	−1.71	0.07	−1.85	0.01	0.00
Bilaigarh	−3.47	−0.13	−2.91	−0.12	−0.11	3.29	−0.13	3.62	0.49	−0.19	−1.07	0.11	−1.12	−0.05	0.00
Kasdol	−3.17	−0.20	−2.51	−0.18	−0.13	2.40	−0.34	2.95	0.37	−0.27	0.71	0.26	0.19	0.07	0.05
Palari	−3.09	−0.12	−2.43	−0.18	−0.14	3.46	−0.16	3.64	0.48	−0.29	−0.52	0.14	−1.17	0.06	0.08
Simga	−3.26	−0.14	−2.66	−0.12	−0.15	1.51	−0.10	1.92	0.46	−0.37	−2.98	0.00	−2.88	−0.08	0.00
Balrampur	−3.46	−0.16	−2.57	−0.07	−0.40	−0.18	−0.23	0.26	0.28	−0.13	−3.30	0.31	−3.27	−0.14	−0.15
Rajpur	−3.69	−0.19	−2.73	−0.16	−0.33	−1.53	−0.22	−1.00	0.14	−0.09	−2.40	0.30	−2.10	0.03	−0.12
Ramanujganj	−2.58	−0.16	−1.73	−0.10	−0.40	−0.58	−0.25	−0.01	0.26	−0.02	−3.30	0.14	−2.37	−0.52	−0.22
Samri (Kusmi)	−4.83	−0.28	−3.74	−0.20	−0.42	0.41	−0.09	0.95	0.46	−0.29	−1.03	0.24	−1.07	0.06	−0.31
Shankargarh	−3.89	−0.35	−2.75	−0.19	−0.44	−1.31	−0.22	−0.59	0.15	−0.27	−2.80	0.27	−2.05	0.21	−0.12
Wadrafnagar	−2.24	−0.16	−1.52	−0.09	−0.35	−0.59	−0.19	0.06	0.25	−0.03	−3.12	0.21	−2.77	−0.38	−0.22
Bakavand	−1.22	−0.08	−0.68	−0.05	−0.07	−1.28	−0.08	−1.50	0.80	−0.17	3.14	−0.27	4.56	0.12	−0.35
Bastanar	−1.72	−0.09	−0.96	−0.12	−0.03	−2.73	0.07	−2.87	0.85	−0.16	3.22	0.29	3.80	−0.04	−0.17
Bastar	−1.44	0.03	−0.81	0.00	−0.04	−1.89	0.18	−2.32	0.89	−0.15	2.98	0.03	3.95	0.10	−0.24
Darbha	−1.20	0.09	−0.66	−0.01	−0.03	−1.81	0.16	−2.13	0.80	−0.19	5.44	0.45	5.40	0.27	−0.20
Jagdalpur	−1.93	0.10	−1.58	−0.06	−0.02	−1.55	0.27	−2.19	0.97	−0.18	4.04	0.29	4.38	−0.14	−0.25
Lohandiguda	−1.94	−0.09	−1.12	−0.09	−0.03	−2.39	0.11	−2.72	0.92	−0.14	2.24	0.13	2.96	−0.02	−0.15
Tokapal	−1.09	0.25	−0.63	−0.07	−0.02	−2.20	0.24	−2.88	0.87	−0.13	3.48	0.43	3.87	−0.08	−0.22
Bemetara	−1.75	−0.14	−1.12	−0.09	−0.18	−0.27	−0.12	0.09	0.49	−0.38	0.01	0.05	0.02	−0.06	0.00
Berla	−1.51	−0.09	−0.89	−0.07	−0.16	−0.36	−0.17	0.16	0.33	−0.33	2.55	0.16	1.89	0.22	0.08
Nawagarh	−2.17	−0.16	−1.59	−0.11	−0.16	1.19	−0.15	1.49	0.41	−0.36	−2.46	0.08	−2.48	−0.11	0.06
Saja	−0.17	−0.13	0.42	−0.13	−0.21	1.65	−0.09	1.70	0.34	−0.31	5.52	0.17	4.85	0.14	0.04
Thanakhamria	−0.74	−0.11	−0.05	−0.10	−0.19	0.21	−0.08	0.48	0.43	−0.32	3.40	0.09	3.33	0.05	0.00
Bhairamgarh	−0.31	−0.58	0.49	−0.07	−0.09	4.81	0.17	3.88	0.99	−0.34	2.04	−0.11	2.78	−0.19	−0.03
Bhopalpattnam	2.61	−0.21	2.97	0.17	−0.11	9.43	0.36	8.29	1.09	−0.35	3.17	0.03	3.85	−0.19	0.00
Bijapur	2.54	−0.36	2.73	0.03	−0.07	7.26	0.12	6.18	0.79	−0.30	2.68	0.04	2.77	−0.39	−0.03
Usur	4.61	−0.16	4.51	0.14	−0.04	7.07	−0.11	6.91	0.65	−0.21	5.56	0.37	5.49	−0.09	−0.01
Bilaspur	−1.76	−0.09	−1.38	−0.09	−0.12	2.05	−0.11	2.41	0.28	−0.14	−0.97	0.23	−1.54	0.00	0.05
Bilha	−1.91	−0.12	−1.45	−0.07	−0.13	2.41	−0.14	3.16	0.14	−0.12	−1.07	0.21	−1.77	0.09	0.02
Kota	−1.16	−0.11	−0.83	−0.07	−0.13	2.32	−0.33	2.61	0.22	−0.20	−1.59	0.08	−2.33	−0.02	−0.02
Marwahi	−1.21	−0.08	−0.59	−0.07	−0.19	−1.08	−0.43	−0.09	0.09	−0.14	−2.69	0.23	−2.62	−0.03	−0.07
Masturi	−2.04	−0.10	−1.69	−0.10	−0.14	1.55	−0.16	2.63	0.15	−0.23	−0.33	0.18	−1.09	0.01	0.05
Pendra	−0.58	−0.05	−0.20	−0.05	−0.15	−0.83	−0.43	−0.02	0.05	−0.15	−2.19	0.09	−2.61	−0.05	−0.08
Pendra Road	−0.55	0.03	−0.32	−0.09	−0.12	1.28	−0.29	2.02	0.22	−0.15	−2.08	0.25	−2.45	−0.15	−0.09
Takhatpur	−1.13	−0.12	−0.89	−0.05	−0.10	3.36	−0.27	3.52	0.13	−0.16	−1.58	0.30	−2.44	0.10	0.06
Dantewada	−1.64	−0.61	−0.54	−0.12	−0.06	−2.78	−0.36	−2.47	0.73	−0.25	3.24	0.15	4.07	−0.11	−0.10
Gidam	−2.81	−0.59	−1.56	−0.16	−0.05	−3.54	−0.31	−3.02	0.75	−0.20	1.79	0.06	2.68	−0.16	−0.10
Katekalyan	−1.14	−0.35	−0.33	−0.03	−0.06	−2.61	−0.15	−2.48	0.75	−0.20	6.60	0.35	6.00	0.48	−0.18
Kuakonda	0.95	−0.48	1.69	0.00	−0.08	0.66	−0.24	0.99	0.60	−0.31	6.56	0.35	6.05	0.45	−0.09
Dhamtari	−1.74	−0.08	−1.27	−0.04	−0.09	1.77	−0.05	1.86	0.43	−0.24	−0.51	0.17	−0.92	0.27	0.01
Kurud	−2.72	−0.14	−1.96	−0.10	−0.11	2.00	−0.01	2.55	0.33	−0.20	−2.66	−0.05	−1.76	0.05	0.01
Magarlod	−2.75	−0.18	−1.87	−0.12	−0.11	2.72	−0.10	3.26	0.36	−0.25	−2.88	−0.33	−1.75	0.01	−0.07
Nagri	−2.19	−0.12	−1.61	−0.07	−0.10	2.98	−0.13	3.90	0.45	−0.25	−3.28	−0.28	−2.59	0.10	−0.07
Dhamdha	−0.95	−0.11	−0.46	−0.08	−0.15	1.11	−0.13	1.14	0.32	−0.36	3.76	0.23	2.51	0.24	0.09
Durg	−1.20	−0.12	−0.68	−0.06	−0.11	2.26	−0.05	2.22	0.38	−0.32	1.80	0.31	0.49	0.16	0.13
Patan	−1.59	−0.05	−1.13	−0.07	−0.08	2.11	−0.07	1.75	0.35	−0.29	−1.31	0.12	−1.81	0.08	0.12
Bindranavagarh	−2.42	−0.20	−1.74	−0.12	−0.13	1.92	−0.35	2.69	0.45	−0.31	−0.51	−0.27	−0.49	0.14	−0.13
Chhura	−2.32	−0.22	−1.73	−0.14	−0.14	1.98	−0.32	2.53	0.50	−0.32	−0.33	−0.22	−0.25	0.07	−0.07
Deobhog	−0.93	−0.13	−0.35	−0.19	−0.03	−0.73	−0.89	1.16	0.38	−0.28	3.09	−0.03	2.65	−0.04	−0.06
Mainpur	−1.89	−0.15	−1.16	−0.13	−0.06	−0.05	−0.78	1.48	0.39	−0.28	0.62	−0.20	1.04	0.07	−0.13
Rajim	−2.75	−0.24	−2.03	−0.16	−0.14	1.40	−0.34	1.91	0.38	−0.30	0.73	−0.08	1.37	0.00	0.01
Akaltara	−2.68	−0.12	−2.22	−0.08	−0.16	1.38	−0.07	1.73	0.15	−0.06	−2.22	0.04	−2.90	0.02	−0.01
Baloda	−2.32	−0.10	−1.61	−0.14	−0.12	0.68	−0.16	1.40	0.22	−0.28	−1.63	0.11	−2.01	0.00	0.05
Champa	−3.89	−0.16	−3.07	−0.16	−0.16	1.36	−0.22	1.86	0.34	−0.21	−4.08	0.12	−3.99	0.00	0.00
Dabhra	−2.48	−0.01	−2.11	−0.05	−0.11	3.63	−0.16	4.01	0.40	−0.08	1.77	−0.06	1.27	0.16	0.03
Jaijaipur	−3.29	−0.12	−2.73	−0.12	−0.14	2.18	−0.21	2.80	0.34	−0.18	−2.27	−0.01	−1.86	0.02	−0.04
Janjgir	−3.21	−0.14	−2.66	−0.11	−0.18	0.92	−0.13	1.32	0.27	−0.09	−3.80	0.04	−4.15	0.01	−0.05
Malkharoda	−2.87	−0.07	−2.35	−0.09	−0.15	2.72	−0.20	3.24	0.41	−0.10	−1.29	−0.13	−0.81	0.00	−0.09
Nawagarh	−3.43	−0.17	−2.83	−0.12	−0.14	1.54	−0.25	2.32	0.19	−0.22	−1.86	0.10	−2.27	0.00	−0.02
Pamgarh	−3.00	−0.18	−2.47	−0.10	−0.16	1.43	−0.24	2.40	0.08	−0.18	−0.85	0.12	−1.35	0.02	−0.01
Sakti	−3.55	−0.13	−2.96	−0.14	−0.18	1.50	−0.22	1.87	0.38	−0.20	−3.55	−0.09	−3.06	0.03	−0.07
Bagicha	−3.52	−0.36	−2.28	−0.24	−0.34	−0.31	−0.46	0.84	0.38	−0.29	−3.47	0.04	−2.99	0.06	−0.24
Duldula	−1.81	−0.17	−0.92	−0.16	−0.28	0.84	−0.49	1.74	0.30	−0.15	−2.72	−0.04	−2.12	0.10	−0.27
Farsabahar	−2.60	−0.27	−1.70	−0.32	−0.32	0.11	−0.55	1.11	0.35	−0.28	−0.39	−0.09	−0.43	0.02	−0.26
Jashpur	−1.41	−0.07	−0.67	−0.15	−0.30	0.92	−0.22	1.13	0.27	0.02	−1.29	0.02	−1.29	0.13	−0.31
Kansabel	−2.94	−0.34	−1.69	−0.29	−0.32	0.58	−0.68	1.61	0.52	−0.30	−3.42	−0.13	−2.18	0.01	−0.27
Kunkuri	−2.50	−0.28	−1.50	−0.23	−0.31	0.64	−0.66	1.72	0.49	−0.20	−3.84	−0.14	−2.86	−0.01	−0.34
Manora	−2.96	−0.27	−1.99	−0.19	−0.37	1.35	−0.20	1.46	0.34	−0.23	−0.16	0.09	0.11	0.02	−0.38
Pathalgaon	−2.82	−0.30	−1.92	−0.26	−0.32	−0.37	−0.50	0.52	0.49	−0.30	−0.57	−0.06	−0.11	0.08	−0.26
Bodla	−0.67	−0.13	−0.15	−0.09	−0.19	2.87	−0.11	2.69	0.45	−0.16	−1.01	0.15	−0.79	−0.06	0.06
Kawardha	−0.85	−0.17	−0.18	−0.09	−0.19	1.78	−0.13	1.86	0.47	−0.18	−0.88	0.05	−0.34	−0.03	0.03
Pandariya	−0.86	−0.13	−0.38	−0.11	−0.18	2.53	−0.10	2.33	0.46	−0.10	−1.70	0.25	−1.67	0.03	0.04
Sahaspur Lohara	−0.57	−0.14	0.09	−0.10	−0.19	1.62	−0.06	1.76	0.55	−0.33	2.09	0.01	2.69	0.03	−0.03
Bade Rajpur	−1.10	−0.01	−0.92	0.11	−0.09	4.47	0.39	4.25	0.95	−0.14	0.54	0.44	0.50	0.59	0.00
Farasgaon	−1.37	−0.27	−0.88	0.03	−0.11	5.59	0.64	3.96	1.21	−0.18	0.99	−0.01	0.65	0.53	0.00
Keskal	−1.25	−0.09	−1.03	0.07	−0.12	5.47	0.82	3.90	1.31	−0.16	−0.15	0.26	0.00	0.36	−0.01
Kondagaon	−2.33	−0.40	−1.49	−0.03	−0.06	−0.33	−0.01	−0.53	0.86	−0.17	1.11	−0.23	1.92	0.37	−0.08
Makdi	−1.29	−0.15	−0.80	0.05	−0.08	1.20	−0.25	1.12	0.79	−0.19	1.90	0.11	1.82	0.81	−0.12
Kartala	−3.46	−0.13	−2.77	−0.16	−0.20	0.47	−0.30	1.04	0.36	−0.21	−3.06	0.02	−2.60	0.08	−0.05
Katghora	−2.44	−0.11	−1.68	−0.13	−0.16	1.05	−0.24	1.58	0.35	−0.28	−3.01	0.06	−2.61	−0.01	0.01
Korba	−3.42	−0.15	−2.72	−0.17	−0.19	0.41	−0.30	0.83	0.26	−0.18	−2.30	0.03	−1.69	0.12	0.07
Pali	−1.77	−0.12	−1.21	−0.10	−0.16	2.39	−0.15	2.81	0.52	−0.22	−2.71	0.07	−3.04	−0.02	0.03
Poundi-Uproda	−2.43	−0.13	−1.76	−0.07	−0.19	−0.23	−0.28	0.47	0.26	−0.26	−3.14	0.13	−3.38	0.09	0.03
Baikunthpur	−4.46	−0.19	−3.37	−0.10	−0.29	−3.58	−0.23	−2.67	0.10	−0.04	−4.04	0.23	−3.81	0.03	0.07
Bharatpur	−3.05	−0.12	−2.35	−0.06	−0.29	−2.50	−0.15	−1.88	−0.06	−0.14	0.09	0.08	0.20	0.15	−0.02
Khadganva	−3.29	−0.19	−2.40	−0.07	−0.30	−2.28	−0.32	−1.34	0.17	−0.16	−2.97	0.25	−3.53	0.14	0.09
Manendragarh	−3.14	−0.21	−2.18	−0.04	−0.33	−3.00	−0.43	−1.97	0.00	−0.18	−1.04	0.30	−1.91	0.23	0.06
Sonhat	−3.36	−0.20	−2.51	−0.01	−0.32	−1.92	−0.26	−1.94	0.09	−0.16	−0.52	0.25	−1.04	0.18	0.06
Bagbahra	−1.91	−0.24	−1.21	−0.13	−0.13	1.30	−0.47	1.75	0.50	−0.34	0.73	−0.04	0.37	0.09	−0.02
Basna	−3.18	−0.12	−2.75	−0.10	−0.09	4.15	−0.19	3.89	0.61	−0.24	−0.07	0.01	−0.45	0.01	0.04
Mahasamund	−2.77	−0.25	−1.95	−0.20	−0.14	2.89	−0.35	3.31	0.48	−0.36	1.68	0.04	1.69	0.06	0.05
Pithora	−2.70	−0.19	−2.21	−0.14	−0.12	3.12	−0.28	3.49	0.59	−0.28	−0.11	0.07	−0.05	0.02	0.01
Saraipali	−2.75	−0.02	−2.44	−0.06	−0.08	3.25	−0.08	3.27	0.71	−0.21	1.70	0.01	1.73	0.08	0.13
Lormi	−0.55	−0.07	−0.24	−0.09	−0.13	3.13	−0.24	3.40	0.32	−0.13	−1.27	0.29	−1.70	−0.09	−0.03
Mungeli	−1.29	−0.15	−0.82	−0.07	−0.14	2.82	−0.18	2.72	0.38	−0.22	−2.19	0.17	−2.17	−0.01	0.07
Pathariya	−1.79	−0.14	−1.38	−0.06	−0.12	3.26	−0.15	3.18	0.24	−0.15	−2.51	0.19	−2.86	0.04	0.03
Narayanpur	−1.89	−0.51	−0.97	−0.05	−0.08	3.23	0.34	2.06	1.02	−0.19	1.23	−0.22	2.12	0.32	−0.01
Orchha	−0.92	−0.44	−0.15	0.01	−0.12	5.95	0.51	4.43	0.89	−0.25	2.10	−0.04	2.64	0.38	−0.06
Baramkela	−1.96	0.02	−1.77	−0.03	−0.11	4.18	−0.06	4.12	0.68	−0.17	5.40	0.03	4.13	0.07	0.06
Gharghoda	−3.24	−0.05	−2.92	−0.12	−0.18	0.49	−0.25	0.53	0.53	−0.17	0.51	−0.02	0.23	0.10	−0.03
Kharsia	−3.03	−0.04	−2.62	−0.08	−0.17	2.35	−0.16	2.57	0.45	−0.09	−1.27	−0.10	−0.71	0.09	−0.07
Lailunga	−3.24	−0.13	−2.67	−0.21	−0.23	0.23	−0.37	0.80	0.50	−0.23	1.05	−0.06	0.59	0.07	−0.13
Pusour	−2.40	0.02	−2.29	0.01	−0.11	3.14	−0.10	3.13	0.61	−0.11	3.35	−0.02	2.82	0.24	0.06
Raigarh	−2.90	0.03	−2.68	−0.02	−0.12	3.01	−0.10	2.63	0.61	−0.06	2.81	0.00	2.18	0.26	0.03
Sarangarh	−2.58	−0.04	−2.17	−0.07	−0.11	4.03	−0.10	4.09	0.58	−0.18	2.31	−0.02	1.92	0.07	0.03
Tamnar	−3.38	0.01	−3.05	−0.09	−0.16	1.85	−0.16	1.78	0.57	−0.13	2.03	−0.01	1.50	0.21	−0.03
Udaipur	−3.47	−0.16	−2.88	−0.15	−0.23	−0.18	−0.22	−0.05	0.53	−0.16	−0.58	−0.04	−0.57	0.13	−0.08
Abhanpur	−3.17	−0.16	−2.44	−0.13	−0.11	1.50	−0.05	2.13	0.37	−0.18	−1.83	−0.05	−1.55	0.01	0.04
Arang	−2.98	−0.18	−2.27	−0.16	−0.12	2.33	−0.20	2.54	0.34	−0.29	0.34	0.04	0.53	0.03	0.04
Raipur	−2.61	−0.10	−2.02	−0.11	−0.09	1.66	−0.09	1.60	0.28	−0.29	−0.50	0.07	−0.32	0.02	0.09
Tilda	−3.41	−0.13	−2.71	−0.14	−0.12	1.19	−0.13	1.91	0.39	−0.30	−2.37	0.03	−2.26	0.02	0.04
Ambagarh	−1.76	−0.15	−1.02	−0.17	−0.13	2.91	0.13	3.56	0.38	−0.20	−2.15	0.28	−2.20	0.06	0.00
Chhuikhadan	−2.03	−0.21	−1.24	−0.15	−0.20	2.31	0.02	2.37	0.62	−0.33	−1.80	0.03	−1.50	−0.06	−0.08
Chhuriya	−1.92	−0.11	−1.13	−0.14	−0.12	1.58	−0.06	2.67	0.45	−0.38	−2.54	0.37	−2.91	−0.06	0.03
Dongargaon	−1.54	−0.10	−0.94	−0.10	−0.10	2.18	−0.09	3.05	0.42	−0.37	−1.55	0.46	−2.88	−0.04	0.18
Dongargarh	−1.87	−0.16	−1.06	−0.14	−0.14	0.46	−0.08	1.61	0.30	−0.41	−2.00	0.24	−2.24	−0.09	0.04
Khairagarh	−1.82	−0.21	−1.00	−0.18	−0.19	1.66	0.15	1.75	0.44	−0.26	−0.44	0.12	−0.36	−0.08	−0.01
Manpur	0.08	−0.20	0.74	−0.08	−0.16	7.26	0.18	7.04	0.45	−0.32	2.40	0.09	2.75	0.31	−0.05
Mohla	−0.58	−0.18	0.18	−0.09	−0.15	5.23	0.10	5.42	0.41	−0.27	1.27	0.18	0.75	0.29	−0.01
Rajnandgaon	−1.40	−0.15	−0.74	−0.08	−0.12	2.90	0.09	2.59	0.36	−0.31	1.71	0.34	0.46	0.13	0.16
Chhindgarh	−1.18	−0.32	−0.49	0.01	−0.06	−2.42	−0.27	−2.44	0.63	−0.24	7.54	0.35	7.29	0.74	−0.13
Konta	2.63	−0.56	4.02	−0.43	−0.08	4.53	−0.62	6.48	−0.64	−0.24	6.32	0.16	6.80	−0.17	−0.05
Sukma	−0.18	−0.57	0.82	−0.18	−0.10	−1.34	−0.68	−0.69	0.14	−0.37	8.85	0.54	8.22	0.93	−0.06
Bhaiyathan	−3.85	−0.08	−3.02	−0.05	−0.19	−1.98	−0.14	−1.49	0.30	0.07	−2.33	0.26	−2.03	−0.02	−0.02
Oudgi	−3.19	−0.15	−2.31	−0.10	−0.27	−1.14	−0.13	−1.01	0.19	−0.09	−1.93	0.19	−1.33	−0.07	−0.03
Pratappur	−2.95	−0.14	−2.10	−0.15	−0.27	−1.47	−0.17	−0.88	0.17	−0.03	−2.95	0.19	−2.52	−0.21	−0.11
Premnagar	−3.91	−0.09	−3.20	−0.06	−0.20	−1.99	−0.20	−1.40	0.29	−0.06	−2.12	0.28	−2.52	0.09	0.04
Ramanujnagar	−4.58	−0.11	−3.62	−0.08	−0.22	−2.63	−0.17	−1.90	0.28	0.02	−3.41	0.28	−3.09	0.02	0.03
Surajpur	−3.78	−0.04	−3.07	−0.01	−0.16	−2.48	−0.12	−1.60	0.26	0.07	−1.39	0.28	−1.52	0.13	−0.07
Ambikapur	−3.87	−0.11	−3.10	−0.06	−0.22	−1.41	−0.15	−0.86	0.38	−0.02	−1.32	0.21	−1.67	0.10	−0.12
Batouli	−3.82	−0.33	−2.57	−0.26	−0.34	−0.97	−0.39	−0.06	0.30	−0.30	−3.33	0.03	−2.58	0.06	−0.13
Lakhanpur	−3.73	−0.06	−3.23	−0.02	−0.17	−1.63	−0.15	−1.29	0.38	0.02	−0.80	0.20	−1.43	0.21	−0.05
Lundra	−3.85	−0.27	−2.82	−0.21	−0.34	−1.59	−0.28	−0.98	0.14	−0.14	−2.61	0.20	−2.42	0.16	−0.14
Mainpat	−4.04	−0.26	−3.01	−0.19	−0.28	−0.54	−0.38	0.56	0.40	−0.30	−1.92	0.00	−1.90	0.13	−0.13
Sitapur	−3.57	−0.37	−2.31	−0.26	−0.33	0.00	−0.54	1.18	0.48	−0.37	−3.40	−0.18	−2.31	0.05	−0.25
Udaypur	−3.90	−0.10	−3.23	−0.10	−0.18	−1.67	−0.18	−0.77	0.29	−0.10	−1.20	0.18	−1.50	0.17	0.02
Antagarh	−0.80	−0.25	−0.31	0.03	−0.13	7.43	0.77	5.79	1.13	−0.20	0.68	0.01	1.19	0.30	−0.05
Bhanupratappur	−0.85	−0.19	−0.39	0.00	−0.13	6.05	0.32	5.43	0.71	−0.25	0.24	−0.03	0.40	0.20	−0.08
Charama	−1.90	−0.09	−1.50	0.02	−0.09	2.08	−0.01	2.14	0.69	−0.23	0.19	0.23	−0.13	0.30	0.03
Durgkondal	0.21	−0.23	0.99	−0.06	−0.16	7.93	0.22	7.62	0.52	−0.32	1.70	0.05	1.95	0.28	−0.03
Kanker	−1.70	−0.12	−1.44	0.05	−0.10	3.34	0.60	2.07	0.99	−0.17	0.01	−0.13	0.69	0.28	0.00
Narharpur	−2.12	−0.08	−1.75	−0.01	−0.10	2.92	0.21	3.12	0.68	−0.20	−1.19	−0.12	−0.84	0.26	0.00
Pakhanjur	−0.10	−0.19	0.50	−0.01	−0.15	8.73	0.64	8.21	0.58	−0.26	1.72	0.01	2.13	0.26	−0.12

Station	Sen's slope during 1901–2020					Sen's slope during 1901–1961					Sen's slope during 1962–2020
Station	Annual	Pre-Mon	Monsoon	Post-Mon	Winter	Annual	Pre-Mon	Monsoon	Post-Mon	Winter	Annual	Pre-Mon	Monsoon	Post-Mon	Winter
Balod	−2.52	−0.16	−1.75	−0.04	−0.09	0.87	−0.09	1.49	0.68	−0.25	0.98	0.44	0.01	0.19	0.04
Dondi	−1.05	−0.12	−0.57	0.00	−0.11	4.55	0.11	3.94	0.68	−0.18	2.14	0.33	1.55	0.33	0.03
Dondi Luhara	−1.19	−0.13	−0.80	−0.06	−0.12	4.33	0.12	3.48	0.53	−0.25	3.07	0.60	1.03	0.33	0.18
Gunderdehi	−1.60	−0.07	−1.10	−0.02	−0.09	2.84	−0.01	2.55	0.55	−0.28	1.73	0.54	0.28	0.24	0.19
Gurur	−1.62	−0.07	−1.02	−0.03	−0.09	1.13	0.00	1.56	0.44	−0.21	−0.12	0.33	−0.74	0.28	0.05
Baloda Bazar	−2.73	−0.12	−2.18	−0.14	−0.16	1.92	−0.22	2.85	0.23	−0.31	0.09	0.17	−0.41	0.08	0.04
Bhatapara	−3.48	−0.14	−2.84	−0.12	−0.17	2.38	−0.13	2.71	0.36	−0.30	−1.71	0.07	−1.85	0.01	0.00
Bilaigarh	−3.47	−0.13	−2.91	−0.12	−0.11	3.29	−0.13	3.62	0.49	−0.19	−1.07	0.11	−1.12	−0.05	0.00
Kasdol	−3.17	−0.20	−2.51	−0.18	−0.13	2.40	−0.34	2.95	0.37	−0.27	0.71	0.26	0.19	0.07	0.05
Palari	−3.09	−0.12	−2.43	−0.18	−0.14	3.46	−0.16	3.64	0.48	−0.29	−0.52	0.14	−1.17	0.06	0.08
Simga	−3.26	−0.14	−2.66	−0.12	−0.15	1.51	−0.10	1.92	0.46	−0.37	−2.98	0.00	−2.88	−0.08	0.00
Balrampur	−3.46	−0.16	−2.57	−0.07	−0.40	−0.18	−0.23	0.26	0.28	−0.13	−3.30	0.31	−3.27	−0.14	−0.15
Rajpur	−3.69	−0.19	−2.73	−0.16	−0.33	−1.53	−0.22	−1.00	0.14	−0.09	−2.40	0.30	−2.10	0.03	−0.12
Ramanujganj	−2.58	−0.16	−1.73	−0.10	−0.40	−0.58	−0.25	−0.01	0.26	−0.02	−3.30	0.14	−2.37	−0.52	−0.22
Samri (Kusmi)	−4.83	−0.28	−3.74	−0.20	−0.42	0.41	−0.09	0.95	0.46	−0.29	−1.03	0.24	−1.07	0.06	−0.31
Shankargarh	−3.89	−0.35	−2.75	−0.19	−0.44	−1.31	−0.22	−0.59	0.15	−0.27	−2.80	0.27	−2.05	0.21	−0.12
Wadrafnagar	−2.24	−0.16	−1.52	−0.09	−0.35	−0.59	−0.19	0.06	0.25	−0.03	−3.12	0.21	−2.77	−0.38	−0.22
Bakavand	−1.22	−0.08	−0.68	−0.05	−0.07	−1.28	−0.08	−1.50	0.80	−0.17	3.14	−0.27	4.56	0.12	−0.35
Bastanar	−1.72	−0.09	−0.96	−0.12	−0.03	−2.73	0.07	−2.87	0.85	−0.16	3.22	0.29	3.80	−0.04	−0.17
Bastar	−1.44	0.03	−0.81	0.00	−0.04	−1.89	0.18	−2.32	0.89	−0.15	2.98	0.03	3.95	0.10	−0.24
Darbha	−1.20	0.09	−0.66	−0.01	−0.03	−1.81	0.16	−2.13	0.80	−0.19	5.44	0.45	5.40	0.27	−0.20
Jagdalpur	−1.93	0.10	−1.58	−0.06	−0.02	−1.55	0.27	−2.19	0.97	−0.18	4.04	0.29	4.38	−0.14	−0.25
Lohandiguda	−1.94	−0.09	−1.12	−0.09	−0.03	−2.39	0.11	−2.72	0.92	−0.14	2.24	0.13	2.96	−0.02	−0.15
Tokapal	−1.09	0.25	−0.63	−0.07	−0.02	−2.20	0.24	−2.88	0.87	−0.13	3.48	0.43	3.87	−0.08	−0.22
Bemetara	−1.75	−0.14	−1.12	−0.09	−0.18	−0.27	−0.12	0.09	0.49	−0.38	0.01	0.05	0.02	−0.06	0.00
Berla	−1.51	−0.09	−0.89	−0.07	−0.16	−0.36	−0.17	0.16	0.33	−0.33	2.55	0.16	1.89	0.22	0.08
Nawagarh	−2.17	−0.16	−1.59	−0.11	−0.16	1.19	−0.15	1.49	0.41	−0.36	−2.46	0.08	−2.48	−0.11	0.06
Saja	−0.17	−0.13	0.42	−0.13	−0.21	1.65	−0.09	1.70	0.34	−0.31	5.52	0.17	4.85	0.14	0.04
Thanakhamria	−0.74	−0.11	−0.05	−0.10	−0.19	0.21	−0.08	0.48	0.43	−0.32	3.40	0.09	3.33	0.05	0.00
Bhairamgarh	−0.31	−0.58	0.49	−0.07	−0.09	4.81	0.17	3.88	0.99	−0.34	2.04	−0.11	2.78	−0.19	−0.03
Bhopalpattnam	2.61	−0.21	2.97	0.17	−0.11	9.43	0.36	8.29	1.09	−0.35	3.17	0.03	3.85	−0.19	0.00
Bijapur	2.54	−0.36	2.73	0.03	−0.07	7.26	0.12	6.18	0.79	−0.30	2.68	0.04	2.77	−0.39	−0.03
Usur	4.61	−0.16	4.51	0.14	−0.04	7.07	−0.11	6.91	0.65	−0.21	5.56	0.37	5.49	−0.09	−0.01
Bilaspur	−1.76	−0.09	−1.38	−0.09	−0.12	2.05	−0.11	2.41	0.28	−0.14	−0.97	0.23	−1.54	0.00	0.05
Bilha	−1.91	−0.12	−1.45	−0.07	−0.13	2.41	−0.14	3.16	0.14	−0.12	−1.07	0.21	−1.77	0.09	0.02
Kota	−1.16	−0.11	−0.83	−0.07	−0.13	2.32	−0.33	2.61	0.22	−0.20	−1.59	0.08	−2.33	−0.02	−0.02
Marwahi	−1.21	−0.08	−0.59	−0.07	−0.19	−1.08	−0.43	−0.09	0.09	−0.14	−2.69	0.23	−2.62	−0.03	−0.07
Masturi	−2.04	−0.10	−1.69	−0.10	−0.14	1.55	−0.16	2.63	0.15	−0.23	−0.33	0.18	−1.09	0.01	0.05
Pendra	−0.58	−0.05	−0.20	−0.05	−0.15	−0.83	−0.43	−0.02	0.05	−0.15	−2.19	0.09	−2.61	−0.05	−0.08
Pendra Road	−0.55	0.03	−0.32	−0.09	−0.12	1.28	−0.29	2.02	0.22	−0.15	−2.08	0.25	−2.45	−0.15	−0.09
Takhatpur	−1.13	−0.12	−0.89	−0.05	−0.10	3.36	−0.27	3.52	0.13	−0.16	−1.58	0.30	−2.44	0.10	0.06
Dantewada	−1.64	−0.61	−0.54	−0.12	−0.06	−2.78	−0.36	−2.47	0.73	−0.25	3.24	0.15	4.07	−0.11	−0.10
Gidam	−2.81	−0.59	−1.56	−0.16	−0.05	−3.54	−0.31	−3.02	0.75	−0.20	1.79	0.06	2.68	−0.16	−0.10
Katekalyan	−1.14	−0.35	−0.33	−0.03	−0.06	−2.61	−0.15	−2.48	0.75	−0.20	6.60	0.35	6.00	0.48	−0.18
Kuakonda	0.95	−0.48	1.69	0.00	−0.08	0.66	−0.24	0.99	0.60	−0.31	6.56	0.35	6.05	0.45	−0.09
Dhamtari	−1.74	−0.08	−1.27	−0.04	−0.09	1.77	−0.05	1.86	0.43	−0.24	−0.51	0.17	−0.92	0.27	0.01
Kurud	−2.72	−0.14	−1.96	−0.10	−0.11	2.00	−0.01	2.55	0.33	−0.20	−2.66	−0.05	−1.76	0.05	0.01
Magarlod	−2.75	−0.18	−1.87	−0.12	−0.11	2.72	−0.10	3.26	0.36	−0.25	−2.88	−0.33	−1.75	0.01	−0.07
Nagri	−2.19	−0.12	−1.61	−0.07	−0.10	2.98	−0.13	3.90	0.45	−0.25	−3.28	−0.28	−2.59	0.10	−0.07
Dhamdha	−0.95	−0.11	−0.46	−0.08	−0.15	1.11	−0.13	1.14	0.32	−0.36	3.76	0.23	2.51	0.24	0.09
Durg	−1.20	−0.12	−0.68	−0.06	−0.11	2.26	−0.05	2.22	0.38	−0.32	1.80	0.31	0.49	0.16	0.13
Patan	−1.59	−0.05	−1.13	−0.07	−0.08	2.11	−0.07	1.75	0.35	−0.29	−1.31	0.12	−1.81	0.08	0.12
Bindranavagarh	−2.42	−0.20	−1.74	−0.12	−0.13	1.92	−0.35	2.69	0.45	−0.31	−0.51	−0.27	−0.49	0.14	−0.13
Chhura	−2.32	−0.22	−1.73	−0.14	−0.14	1.98	−0.32	2.53	0.50	−0.32	−0.33	−0.22	−0.25	0.07	−0.07
Deobhog	−0.93	−0.13	−0.35	−0.19	−0.03	−0.73	−0.89	1.16	0.38	−0.28	3.09	−0.03	2.65	−0.04	−0.06
Mainpur	−1.89	−0.15	−1.16	−0.13	−0.06	−0.05	−0.78	1.48	0.39	−0.28	0.62	−0.20	1.04	0.07	−0.13
Rajim	−2.75	−0.24	−2.03	−0.16	−0.14	1.40	−0.34	1.91	0.38	−0.30	0.73	−0.08	1.37	0.00	0.01
Akaltara	−2.68	−0.12	−2.22	−0.08	−0.16	1.38	−0.07	1.73	0.15	−0.06	−2.22	0.04	−2.90	0.02	−0.01
Baloda	−2.32	−0.10	−1.61	−0.14	−0.12	0.68	−0.16	1.40	0.22	−0.28	−1.63	0.11	−2.01	0.00	0.05
Champa	−3.89	−0.16	−3.07	−0.16	−0.16	1.36	−0.22	1.86	0.34	−0.21	−4.08	0.12	−3.99	0.00	0.00
Dabhra	−2.48	−0.01	−2.11	−0.05	−0.11	3.63	−0.16	4.01	0.40	−0.08	1.77	−0.06	1.27	0.16	0.03
Jaijaipur	−3.29	−0.12	−2.73	−0.12	−0.14	2.18	−0.21	2.80	0.34	−0.18	−2.27	−0.01	−1.86	0.02	−0.04
Janjgir	−3.21	−0.14	−2.66	−0.11	−0.18	0.92	−0.13	1.32	0.27	−0.09	−3.80	0.04	−4.15	0.01	−0.05
Malkharoda	−2.87	−0.07	−2.35	−0.09	−0.15	2.72	−0.20	3.24	0.41	−0.10	−1.29	−0.13	−0.81	0.00	−0.09
Nawagarh	−3.43	−0.17	−2.83	−0.12	−0.14	1.54	−0.25	2.32	0.19	−0.22	−1.86	0.10	−2.27	0.00	−0.02
Pamgarh	−3.00	−0.18	−2.47	−0.10	−0.16	1.43	−0.24	2.40	0.08	−0.18	−0.85	0.12	−1.35	0.02	−0.01
Sakti	−3.55	−0.13	−2.96	−0.14	−0.18	1.50	−0.22	1.87	0.38	−0.20	−3.55	−0.09	−3.06	0.03	−0.07
Bagicha	−3.52	−0.36	−2.28	−0.24	−0.34	−0.31	−0.46	0.84	0.38	−0.29	−3.47	0.04	−2.99	0.06	−0.24
Duldula	−1.81	−0.17	−0.92	−0.16	−0.28	0.84	−0.49	1.74	0.30	−0.15	−2.72	−0.04	−2.12	0.10	−0.27
Farsabahar	−2.60	−0.27	−1.70	−0.32	−0.32	0.11	−0.55	1.11	0.35	−0.28	−0.39	−0.09	−0.43	0.02	−0.26
Jashpur	−1.41	−0.07	−0.67	−0.15	−0.30	0.92	−0.22	1.13	0.27	0.02	−1.29	0.02	−1.29	0.13	−0.31
Kansabel	−2.94	−0.34	−1.69	−0.29	−0.32	0.58	−0.68	1.61	0.52	−0.30	−3.42	−0.13	−2.18	0.01	−0.27
Kunkuri	−2.50	−0.28	−1.50	−0.23	−0.31	0.64	−0.66	1.72	0.49	−0.20	−3.84	−0.14	−2.86	−0.01	−0.34
Manora	−2.96	−0.27	−1.99	−0.19	−0.37	1.35	−0.20	1.46	0.34	−0.23	−0.16	0.09	0.11	0.02	−0.38
Pathalgaon	−2.82	−0.30	−1.92	−0.26	−0.32	−0.37	−0.50	0.52	0.49	−0.30	−0.57	−0.06	−0.11	0.08	−0.26
Bodla	−0.67	−0.13	−0.15	−0.09	−0.19	2.87	−0.11	2.69	0.45	−0.16	−1.01	0.15	−0.79	−0.06	0.06
Kawardha	−0.85	−0.17	−0.18	−0.09	−0.19	1.78	−0.13	1.86	0.47	−0.18	−0.88	0.05	−0.34	−0.03	0.03
Pandariya	−0.86	−0.13	−0.38	−0.11	−0.18	2.53	−0.10	2.33	0.46	−0.10	−1.70	0.25	−1.67	0.03	0.04
Sahaspur Lohara	−0.57	−0.14	0.09	−0.10	−0.19	1.62	−0.06	1.76	0.55	−0.33	2.09	0.01	2.69	0.03	−0.03
Bade Rajpur	−1.10	−0.01	−0.92	0.11	−0.09	4.47	0.39	4.25	0.95	−0.14	0.54	0.44	0.50	0.59	0.00
Farasgaon	−1.37	−0.27	−0.88	0.03	−0.11	5.59	0.64	3.96	1.21	−0.18	0.99	−0.01	0.65	0.53	0.00
Keskal	−1.25	−0.09	−1.03	0.07	−0.12	5.47	0.82	3.90	1.31	−0.16	−0.15	0.26	0.00	0.36	−0.01
Kondagaon	−2.33	−0.40	−1.49	−0.03	−0.06	−0.33	−0.01	−0.53	0.86	−0.17	1.11	−0.23	1.92	0.37	−0.08
Makdi	−1.29	−0.15	−0.80	0.05	−0.08	1.20	−0.25	1.12	0.79	−0.19	1.90	0.11	1.82	0.81	−0.12
Kartala	−3.46	−0.13	−2.77	−0.16	−0.20	0.47	−0.30	1.04	0.36	−0.21	−3.06	0.02	−2.60	0.08	−0.05
Katghora	−2.44	−0.11	−1.68	−0.13	−0.16	1.05	−0.24	1.58	0.35	−0.28	−3.01	0.06	−2.61	−0.01	0.01
Korba	−3.42	−0.15	−2.72	−0.17	−0.19	0.41	−0.30	0.83	0.26	−0.18	−2.30	0.03	−1.69	0.12	0.07
Pali	−1.77	−0.12	−1.21	−0.10	−0.16	2.39	−0.15	2.81	0.52	−0.22	−2.71	0.07	−3.04	−0.02	0.03
Poundi-Uproda	−2.43	−0.13	−1.76	−0.07	−0.19	−0.23	−0.28	0.47	0.26	−0.26	−3.14	0.13	−3.38	0.09	0.03
Baikunthpur	−4.46	−0.19	−3.37	−0.10	−0.29	−3.58	−0.23	−2.67	0.10	−0.04	−4.04	0.23	−3.81	0.03	0.07
Bharatpur	−3.05	−0.12	−2.35	−0.06	−0.29	−2.50	−0.15	−1.88	−0.06	−0.14	0.09	0.08	0.20	0.15	−0.02
Khadganva	−3.29	−0.19	−2.40	−0.07	−0.30	−2.28	−0.32	−1.34	0.17	−0.16	−2.97	0.25	−3.53	0.14	0.09
Manendragarh	−3.14	−0.21	−2.18	−0.04	−0.33	−3.00	−0.43	−1.97	0.00	−0.18	−1.04	0.30	−1.91	0.23	0.06
Sonhat	−3.36	−0.20	−2.51	−0.01	−0.32	−1.92	−0.26	−1.94	0.09	−0.16	−0.52	0.25	−1.04	0.18	0.06
Bagbahra	−1.91	−0.24	−1.21	−0.13	−0.13	1.30	−0.47	1.75	0.50	−0.34	0.73	−0.04	0.37	0.09	−0.02
Basna	−3.18	−0.12	−2.75	−0.10	−0.09	4.15	−0.19	3.89	0.61	−0.24	−0.07	0.01	−0.45	0.01	0.04
Mahasamund	−2.77	−0.25	−1.95	−0.20	−0.14	2.89	−0.35	3.31	0.48	−0.36	1.68	0.04	1.69	0.06	0.05
Pithora	−2.70	−0.19	−2.21	−0.14	−0.12	3.12	−0.28	3.49	0.59	−0.28	−0.11	0.07	−0.05	0.02	0.01
Saraipali	−2.75	−0.02	−2.44	−0.06	−0.08	3.25	−0.08	3.27	0.71	−0.21	1.70	0.01	1.73	0.08	0.13
Lormi	−0.55	−0.07	−0.24	−0.09	−0.13	3.13	−0.24	3.40	0.32	−0.13	−1.27	0.29	−1.70	−0.09	−0.03
Mungeli	−1.29	−0.15	−0.82	−0.07	−0.14	2.82	−0.18	2.72	0.38	−0.22	−2.19	0.17	−2.17	−0.01	0.07
Pathariya	−1.79	−0.14	−1.38	−0.06	−0.12	3.26	−0.15	3.18	0.24	−0.15	−2.51	0.19	−2.86	0.04	0.03
Narayanpur	−1.89	−0.51	−0.97	−0.05	−0.08	3.23	0.34	2.06	1.02	−0.19	1.23	−0.22	2.12	0.32	−0.01
Orchha	−0.92	−0.44	−0.15	0.01	−0.12	5.95	0.51	4.43	0.89	−0.25	2.10	−0.04	2.64	0.38	−0.06
Baramkela	−1.96	0.02	−1.77	−0.03	−0.11	4.18	−0.06	4.12	0.68	−0.17	5.40	0.03	4.13	0.07	0.06
Gharghoda	−3.24	−0.05	−2.92	−0.12	−0.18	0.49	−0.25	0.53	0.53	−0.17	0.51	−0.02	0.23	0.10	−0.03
Kharsia	−3.03	−0.04	−2.62	−0.08	−0.17	2.35	−0.16	2.57	0.45	−0.09	−1.27	−0.10	−0.71	0.09	−0.07
Lailunga	−3.24	−0.13	−2.67	−0.21	−0.23	0.23	−0.37	0.80	0.50	−0.23	1.05	−0.06	0.59	0.07	−0.13
Pusour	−2.40	0.02	−2.29	0.01	−0.11	3.14	−0.10	3.13	0.61	−0.11	3.35	−0.02	2.82	0.24	0.06
Raigarh	−2.90	0.03	−2.68	−0.02	−0.12	3.01	−0.10	2.63	0.61	−0.06	2.81	0.00	2.18	0.26	0.03
Sarangarh	−2.58	−0.04	−2.17	−0.07	−0.11	4.03	−0.10	4.09	0.58	−0.18	2.31	−0.02	1.92	0.07	0.03
Tamnar	−3.38	0.01	−3.05	−0.09	−0.16	1.85	−0.16	1.78	0.57	−0.13	2.03	−0.01	1.50	0.21	−0.03
Udaipur	−3.47	−0.16	−2.88	−0.15	−0.23	−0.18	−0.22	−0.05	0.53	−0.16	−0.58	−0.04	−0.57	0.13	−0.08
Abhanpur	−3.17	−0.16	−2.44	−0.13	−0.11	1.50	−0.05	2.13	0.37	−0.18	−1.83	−0.05	−1.55	0.01	0.04
Arang	−2.98	−0.18	−2.27	−0.16	−0.12	2.33	−0.20	2.54	0.34	−0.29	0.34	0.04	0.53	0.03	0.04
Raipur	−2.61	−0.10	−2.02	−0.11	−0.09	1.66	−0.09	1.60	0.28	−0.29	−0.50	0.07	−0.32	0.02	0.09
Tilda	−3.41	−0.13	−2.71	−0.14	−0.12	1.19	−0.13	1.91	0.39	−0.30	−2.37	0.03	−2.26	0.02	0.04
Ambagarh	−1.76	−0.15	−1.02	−0.17	−0.13	2.91	0.13	3.56	0.38	−0.20	−2.15	0.28	−2.20	0.06	0.00
Chhuikhadan	−2.03	−0.21	−1.24	−0.15	−0.20	2.31	0.02	2.37	0.62	−0.33	−1.80	0.03	−1.50	−0.06	−0.08
Chhuriya	−1.92	−0.11	−1.13	−0.14	−0.12	1.58	−0.06	2.67	0.45	−0.38	−2.54	0.37	−2.91	−0.06	0.03
Dongargaon	−1.54	−0.10	−0.94	−0.10	−0.10	2.18	−0.09	3.05	0.42	−0.37	−1.55	0.46	−2.88	−0.04	0.18
Dongargarh	−1.87	−0.16	−1.06	−0.14	−0.14	0.46	−0.08	1.61	0.30	−0.41	−2.00	0.24	−2.24	−0.09	0.04
Khairagarh	−1.82	−0.21	−1.00	−0.18	−0.19	1.66	0.15	1.75	0.44	−0.26	−0.44	0.12	−0.36	−0.08	−0.01
Manpur	0.08	−0.20	0.74	−0.08	−0.16	7.26	0.18	7.04	0.45	−0.32	2.40	0.09	2.75	0.31	−0.05
Mohla	−0.58	−0.18	0.18	−0.09	−0.15	5.23	0.10	5.42	0.41	−0.27	1.27	0.18	0.75	0.29	−0.01
Rajnandgaon	−1.40	−0.15	−0.74	−0.08	−0.12	2.90	0.09	2.59	0.36	−0.31	1.71	0.34	0.46	0.13	0.16
Chhindgarh	−1.18	−0.32	−0.49	0.01	−0.06	−2.42	−0.27	−2.44	0.63	−0.24	7.54	0.35	7.29	0.74	−0.13
Konta	2.63	−0.56	4.02	−0.43	−0.08	4.53	−0.62	6.48	−0.64	−0.24	6.32	0.16	6.80	−0.17	−0.05
Sukma	−0.18	−0.57	0.82	−0.18	−0.10	−1.34	−0.68	−0.69	0.14	−0.37	8.85	0.54	8.22	0.93	−0.06
Bhaiyathan	−3.85	−0.08	−3.02	−0.05	−0.19	−1.98	−0.14	−1.49	0.30	0.07	−2.33	0.26	−2.03	−0.02	−0.02
Oudgi	−3.19	−0.15	−2.31	−0.10	−0.27	−1.14	−0.13	−1.01	0.19	−0.09	−1.93	0.19	−1.33	−0.07	−0.03
Pratappur	−2.95	−0.14	−2.10	−0.15	−0.27	−1.47	−0.17	−0.88	0.17	−0.03	−2.95	0.19	−2.52	−0.21	−0.11
Premnagar	−3.91	−0.09	−3.20	−0.06	−0.20	−1.99	−0.20	−1.40	0.29	−0.06	−2.12	0.28	−2.52	0.09	0.04
Ramanujnagar	−4.58	−0.11	−3.62	−0.08	−0.22	−2.63	−0.17	−1.90	0.28	0.02	−3.41	0.28	−3.09	0.02	0.03
Surajpur	−3.78	−0.04	−3.07	−0.01	−0.16	−2.48	−0.12	−1.60	0.26	0.07	−1.39	0.28	−1.52	0.13	−0.07
Ambikapur	−3.87	−0.11	−3.10	−0.06	−0.22	−1.41	−0.15	−0.86	0.38	−0.02	−1.32	0.21	−1.67	0.10	−0.12
Batouli	−3.82	−0.33	−2.57	−0.26	−0.34	−0.97	−0.39	−0.06	0.30	−0.30	−3.33	0.03	−2.58	0.06	−0.13
Lakhanpur	−3.73	−0.06	−3.23	−0.02	−0.17	−1.63	−0.15	−1.29	0.38	0.02	−0.80	0.20	−1.43	0.21	−0.05
Lundra	−3.85	−0.27	−2.82	−0.21	−0.34	−1.59	−0.28	−0.98	0.14	−0.14	−2.61	0.20	−2.42	0.16	−0.14
Mainpat	−4.04	−0.26	−3.01	−0.19	−0.28	−0.54	−0.38	0.56	0.40	−0.30	−1.92	0.00	−1.90	0.13	−0.13
Sitapur	−3.57	−0.37	−2.31	−0.26	−0.33	0.00	−0.54	1.18	0.48	−0.37	−3.40	−0.18	−2.31	0.05	−0.25
Udaypur	−3.90	−0.10	−3.23	−0.10	−0.18	−1.67	−0.18	−0.77	0.29	−0.10	−1.20	0.18	−1.50	0.17	0.02
Antagarh	−0.80	−0.25	−0.31	0.03	−0.13	7.43	0.77	5.79	1.13	−0.20	0.68	0.01	1.19	0.30	−0.05
Bhanupratappur	−0.85	−0.19	−0.39	0.00	−0.13	6.05	0.32	5.43	0.71	−0.25	0.24	−0.03	0.40	0.20	−0.08
Charama	−1.90	−0.09	−1.50	0.02	−0.09	2.08	−0.01	2.14	0.69	−0.23	0.19	0.23	−0.13	0.30	0.03
Durgkondal	0.21	−0.23	0.99	−0.06	−0.16	7.93	0.22	7.62	0.52	−0.32	1.70	0.05	1.95	0.28	−0.03
Kanker	−1.70	−0.12	−1.44	0.05	−0.10	3.34	0.60	2.07	0.99	−0.17	0.01	−0.13	0.69	0.28	0.00
Narharpur	−2.12	−0.08	−1.75	−0.01	−0.10	2.92	0.21	3.12	0.68	−0.20	−1.19	−0.12	−0.84	0.26	0.00
Pakhanjur	−0.10	−0.19	0.50	−0.01	−0.15	8.73	0.64	8.21	0.58	−0.26	1.72	0.01	2.13	0.26	−0.12

Figure 6

Box plot of the Theil–Sen's slope values (magnitude) for annual and seasonal rainfall time series during (a) 1901–2020, (b) 1901–1961 and (c) 1962–2020 of the state of Chhattisgarh.

Before the change point year i.e., from 1901 to 1961, an increase in rainfall was noticed in a majority of blocks as per annual rainfall series analysis. A maximum increase of rainfall during this period was noticed in the Bhopalpattnam block (+9.43 mm year⁻¹) for annual and monsoon time series while a maximum decline in rainfall was noticed in the Baikunthpur (−3.58 mm year⁻¹) and Gidam blocks for annual and monsoon time series respectively. Among the four seasons, the maximum increase/decrease in rainfall in mm year⁻¹ was noticed in monsoon (8.29/− 3.02) followed by post-monsoon (1.31/ −0.64), pre-monsoon (0.82/− 0.89) and winter (0.07/− 0.41).

After the change point year i.e., from 1962 to 2020, a less positive or declining trend of rainfall was noticed. After 1962, a maximum increase in annual rainfall was noticed in the Sukma block (+8.85 mm year⁻¹) and a maximum decrease in annual rainfall was noticed in the Champa block (−4.08 mm year⁻¹). A maximum increase (8.22 mm year⁻¹ in Sukma) and decrease (−4.15 mm year⁻¹ in Janjgir) in rainfall was noticed during the monsoon time series when compared with the other three seasons. The maximum values of increase/decrease of rainfall during the other seasonal time series were 0.6/− 0.33 (pre-monsoon), 0.93/− 0.52 (post-monsoon) and 0.19/− 0.38 (winter).

Trend analysis can be used as an effective tool for drought and flood warnings, because a significantly high correlation was found between trend analysis and drought trends by Pathak & Dodamani (2020). A significant positive increase in rainfall was noticed in a few blocks both during annual and monsoon season time scales. The blocks where there is a positive trend in rainfall can be identified and cultivation of water-intensive crops can be focused here as per the climate and soil suitability.

CONCLUSIONS

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Long-term trends and variability of annual and seasonal rainfall have been analysed for the 149 blocks of Chhattisgarh State. The MWP test and SNHT were used to identify the change point year. MK/MMK and Sen's slope estimation tests were used to ascertain these trends. Spatial rainfall variability on annual and seasonal time scales was determined using the IDW approach and it was mapped using Arc-Map 10.1 software. From the results of the study, it is concluded that annual and monsoonal rainfall and winter precipitation decreased in Chhattisgarh from 1901 to 2020. Rainfall showed a well-marked spatial and temporal variability on both annual and seasonal time scales. The most probable year of change is 1961. Before the change point, i.e. 1901–1961, there was an increase in the trend of rainfall, which was reversed from 1962 to 2020. The magnitude of the annual rainfall trend varies from −4.83 mm year⁻¹ in Samri (Kusmi) to 4.61 mm year⁻¹ in Usur during 1901–2020. For Chhattisgarh State the annual and seasonal slopes were mostly positive from 1901 to 1961, mostly positive from 1962 to 2020. After the change point the maximum value of the rate of rainfall increase decreased from 9.43 to 8.85 mm year⁻¹ while the maximum rate of decrease was hiked from 3.58 to 4.08 mm year⁻¹. These findings call for urgency in adopting strategies for the allocation and management of water resources for both human consumption and agricultural purposes. The outcomes of this study can be useful for agricultural and water resource managers and policymakers for the preparation of contingency plans and formulating strategies for efficient use of water resources.

DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT

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All relevant data are included in the paper or its Supplementary Information.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

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The authors declare there is no conflict.

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