A review on climate change impacts, models, and its consequences on different sectors: a systematic approach

Climate change (CC) is the result of human activities, particularly the burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, and industrial processes that lead to significant and long-lasting changes in global climate patterns over time. CC has many effects, including rising temperatures, rising sea levels, more frequent and severe storms, changes in precipitation patterns, and changes in ocean currents. These changes have profound implications in fields as diverse as agriculture, public health, water use, energy production, and biodiversity. For example, temperature and changing precipitation patterns affect crop yields, while changes in ocean chemistry affect marine biodiversity and fisheries. CC is also affecting the lives and livelihoods of millions of people around the world by causing natural disasters such as floods, droughts, and storms to be more frequent and severe. In addition, CC adversely affects marginalized communities, indigenous peoples, and low-income people, exacerbating existing social and economic inequalities. Therefore, CC is one of our biggest global challenges, and urgent action must be taken to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, adapt to their effects, and ensure a long and healthy life for all. Since the 20th century, anthropogenic GHG emissions have been largely blamed for global CC, including the rise in global temperatures (Crowley & Lowery 2000). In addition, as mentioned in IPCC (2007), accurate simulations of the changes in global temperature during the 20th century can be produced by climate models only if both natural and anthropogenic processes are considered. The effects of CC include reduced snow cover, sea level rise, extreme events, heat waves, an increase in the frequency of hot events, and tropical cyclones. CC is a complicated global intergovernmental challenge that affects different components of ecological, environmental, socio-political, and socioeconomic disciplines (Adger et al. 2005; Leal Filho et al. 2021; Feliciano et al. 2022). The increased atmospheric GHGs produced by the intensive use of fossil fuels are warming the planet due to CC. Global surface temperatures have increased by 0.13 °C on average per decade since 1950. By the end of the 21st century, global average surface temperatures might rise from 1.8 to 4 °C, depending on how much GHG emissions increase. In addition, the climate will continue to warm over the coming decades (IPCC 2007). The effects of CC are already being felt around the world, and they are expected to worsen. CC affects various fields, including agriculture, health, the economy, and the environment. For instance, rising temperatures and changing precipitation patterns will likely reduce crop yields and food security in many regions (Lobell & Gourdji 2012) and increase the spread of diseases such as dengue and malaria (Campbell-Lendrum et al. 2015). The economic impacts of CC include losses associated with disaster recovery and loss of income in sectors such as agriculture and tourism (IPCC 2014). CC is expected to cause significant environmental impacts, such as sea level rise, ocean acidification, and biodiversity loss (IPCC 2014). Efforts to address CC are ongoing, but various challenges, including political, economic, and technological barriers, hamper them. For instance, reducing GHG emissions requires significant changes in energy systems and consumption patterns, which can be difficult to achieve (IPCC 2014). Promoting adaptation and resilience to the impacts of change also requires investments in infrastructure and natural resource management (IPCC 2014). However, there are also significant opportunities associated with addressing CC, such as creating new jobs and industries and promoting sustainable development. However, anthropogenic activity is now considered to be most responsible for CC (Murshed & Dao 2022). Anthropogenic activities such as excessive agricultural activity, burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, and transportation have led to climate catastrophes that damage infrastructure, human health, and productivity. Burning agricultural residues and fossil fuels, in particular, has contributed to increasing GHG emissions. This review aims to analyze the existing literature on various fields affected by CC worldwide and identify preventive measures and mitigation strategies to address the socio-scientific effects of CC. Sectors like agriculture, biodiversity, health, economy, forestry, and tourism are severely impacted by CC and this review discusses the practical measures and adaptation techniques that can be implemented to mitigate the effects. The review also looks at the socioeconomic consequences of irregular weather patterns and other CC effects. In addition, the review provides an in-depth analysis of measures for long-term mitigation and adaptation from a global perspective, focusing on economic, social, and environmental aspects.

This review explores the global repercussions of CC on diverse sectors, giving particular attention to agriculture, biodiversity, health, economy, forestry, and tourism. Its primary objective is to offer actionable strategies for lessening the impact of CC and ensuring resilience against its effects. The review delves deeply into the societal consequences of erratic weather patterns and other manifestations of change. Moreover, it presents a multitude of long-term mitigation methods and adaptation techniques at the global scale, emphasizing economic, social, and environmental aspects. This review offers practical recommendations to direct future study and decision-making in the quest for a resilient and sustainable future despite the threats posed by CC. The goal is to organize and synthesize past and present research, as well as to inspire new research projects and provide workable solutions to minimize and adapt to the effects of CC in diverse sectors.

Table 1 includes various scientific definitions of CC with a common emphasis on the sustained changing of the Earth's surface temperature, weather patterns, and the increase in GHGs as a result of human activities. Together, these definitions highlight the anthropogenic contribution to CC as well as its extensive environmental and climatic effects.

This paper critically examines published studies that assess the global consequences of CC on vulnerable sectors. The following categories are under investigation:

• Agriculture

• Sea level rise

• Water resources

• Human health

• Biodiversity

• Forest ecosystem

• Tourism

CC is expected to have substantial effects on the inland areas of the continent. These impacts will influence weather patterns and result in a scarcity of vital natural resources, particularly water. In addition, the accelerated melting of glaciers further compounds these changes, posing a serious threat to the survival of numerous plant species, potentially leading to their extinction. The rise in temperatures caused by CC is expected to have significant effects on the inland areas of the continent. These impacts will influence weather patterns and result in a scarcity of vital natural resources, particularly water. In addition, the accelerated melting of glaciers further compounds these changes, posing a serious threat to the survival of numerous plant species, potentially leading to their extinction (Chettri et al. 2010). CC poses a looming threat to coastal ecosystems, with rising temperatures, insect-borne diseases, and related health-related issues. These patterns are likely to persist and intensify in the future, exacerbating the potential devastation faced by these valuable ecosystems (Pratiksha et al. 2020; Cooley et al. 2022). A globally insufficient adaptive capacity and a shortage of good infrastructure are causing the most damage (IPCC 2013). The concerns of the general public are compounded by the aforementioned factors, including insufficient environmental education and awareness, outdated consumer behaviours, lack of incentives, inadequate legislation, and a lack of government commitment to tackle CC. Moreover, predictions indicate that by 2050, there could be a 2%–3% rise in mercury levels and significant alterations in rainfall events, both of which may result in adverse impacts on the environment (Huang et al. 2016). Taking action is essential to lessen the effects of CC on natural disasters. Investing in reliable infrastructure, raising public understanding of the implications of CC, and implementing disaster risk reduction measures are crucial to lower the risks of natural catastrophes and their effects.

A proper assessment should be done to perceive the potential impact of CC. Various approaches are used to analyze the effects of CC on agriculture. Some of the most regularly used tools are:

Crop simulation – crop growth and development models are used to simulate crop growth and development under variety of climatic scenarios. They can assist in determining the effect of CC on crop yield, quality, and other variables.

Geographic Information System (GIS) – GIS is a tool that analyses and visualizes spatial data. It can map and analyze the spatial distribution of crops, climate variables, and other factors that affect agricultural production.

Climate models – These sophisticated models are capable of simulating the Earth's climate system and can be effectively utilized to project future climate scenarios. By leveraging these models, we can assess how CC will influence crucial factors such as temperature, precipitation, and other climate variables that significantly impact agricultural production.

Remote sensing – involves collection of data on the Earth's surface with the help of satellites and other sensors. It can be used to track changes in land usage and land cover, as well as crop health, growth, and productivity.

Economic models – Economic models can be utilized to estimate the impacts of CC on agricultural markets, trade, and food security. They can be used to project changes in crop prices, demand, and supply and evaluate the costs and benefits of different adaptation and mitigation strategies.

Adapting to changing climate conditions, a key recommendation is the integration of precision agriculture and Internet of Things (IoT). Precision agriculture incorporates IoT devices, utilizing sensors for real-time monitoring of soil health, moisture level, and crop growth. It also allows farmers to optimize irrigation and fertilizer use, enhancing productivity while minimizing resource wastage. Another important approach is crop diversity. Farmers are encouraged to grow a variety of resilient crops to reduce the dangers brought on by CC. In addition, developing genetic research for climate-resilient crops, encouraging agroforestry, investing in climate-resilient infrastructure, and strengthening early warning systems are the key strategies. Varshney et al. (2018) suggested investing in genomic research to create genetically modified crops that are more tolerant to drought, heat, and pests. Kamilaris et al. (2017) suggested utilizing machine learning and artificial intelligence (AI) to analyze data for the best farming decisions, forecasting weather patterns, and recommending suitable crops. Use of cover crops and other carbon farming practices can be considered to improve soil health and trap carbon dioxide for reducing CC. A blockchain can be implemented for open supply chains, to tell consumers about the carbon footprints of the products they buy, and to promote sustainability. In addition to assuring sustainable farming and food security, these measures reinforce agriculture against CC.

Sea level rise is one of the most prominent outcomes of CC. The progressive rise in the average temperature triggers expansion of seawater, alongside the melting of glaciers and ice sheets, culminating in the elevation of sea levels. Scientists have extensively investigated this phenomenon during recent decades. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is a leading organization that has been publishing reports on CC for over two decades. In 2001, the IPCC published a report on the scientific basis of CC, which included a section on sea level rise (Church & Gregory 2001). According to the report, sea levels rose by 1.8 mm each year during the 20th century and the rate of sea level rise could likely accelerate in the future due to global warming. Rahmstorf et al. (2007) compared recent climate observations with projections made by climate models and discovered that sea levels were rising at a faster rate than the models had originally predicted. After analyzing long-term sea level data, it was concluded that sea levels had risen by 1.7 mm/year during the period from 1900 to 2000, with a notable acceleration observed in the latter part of the century (Jevrejeva et al. 2010). More recent studies have shown that sea level rise is continuing to accelerate. Nerem et al. (2018) used satellite data to measure sea level rise and found that it had increased from 1.8 mm/year in the early 20th century to 3.7 mm/year in the period 2006–2015. Kopp et al. (2016) recreated global mean sea level for the period 1870–2015 and found that the pace of sea level rise had increased from 1.4 mm/year in the 19th century to 3.4 mm/year in the 21st century. The accelerating rise in sea levels has significant implications for the future. Church & White (2006) projected that by the end of the 21st century, sea levels could rise by 26–82 cm, depending on the level of GHG emissions. Hay et al. (2015) used a probabilistic approach to estimate rise and found that there was a 5% chance that levels could rise by more than 2 m by 2100. These projections have significant consequences for coastal areas, which are susceptible to flooding and erosion. Sea level rise is already causing increased flooding and damage to infrastructure, and the frequency and ferocity of such events will continue to increase. Dangendorf et al. (2017) reassessed 20th century sea level rise and found that it was higher than previous estimates, implying that sea level rise was accelerating at an even faster rate than previously believed. Sea level rise is a significant impact of CC, and its acceleration is a cause for concern. The events of the last two decades have brought to the forefront the urgent necessity for taking steps to mitigate GHG emissions and to adapt to the evolving climate conditions. According to the IPCC (2021) AR6 report, the projections indicate that global levels will persistently rise during the 21st century and beyond, irrespective of GHG emissions, owing to the gradual response of the oceans and ice sheets to CC. Nevertheless, the pace of sea level rise will be influenced by the extent of GHG emissions and may surpass previous estimates. The IPCC (2021) AR6 report provides a range of sea level rise projections for the end of the 21st century (2081–2100) relative to the 1995–2014 period, under different scenarios of GHG emissions. The projections range from 0.28 to 0.61 m under the lowest emission scenario (SSP1-1.9), 0.44–0.76 m under the intermediate emission scenario (SSP2-4.5), and 0.63–1.01 m under the highest emission scenario (SSP5-8.5). It should be noted that these projections are subject to uncertainty and do not include the potential for rapid ice sheet disintegration, which could lead to much higher sea level rise in the longer term. However, it is recommended to invest in research to enhance climate models, incorporating more accurate and precise representation of glacier melt, thermal expansion, and other factors including sea level rise. For instance, models like the Community Earth System Model (CESM) can be refined for precise prediction. In addition, sustainable urban planning, managed retreat strategies, green infrastructure investment, and international collaboration can mitigate the effect of CC on sea level rise. Advances in satellite monitoring technologies, such as the Sentinel missions (ESA/NASA), offer precise measurements and insights in addressing future effects of CC on sea level rise. Predictive modelling and trend analysis are improved by the combination of AI and big-data analytics. Regional evaluations that are specifically tailored, like Climate Central's Coastal Risk Screening Tool, offer localized insights for more effective adaption measures. It is essential to involve the community in adaptation efforts, like the Resilient Cities programme, through education and participation. Furthermore, enhancing tidal modelling with AI and refining climate models, as shown in various research initiatives, will enhance our understanding and preparedness for the impacts of sea level rise. Considering CC, these strategies collectively guide us towards a more resilient future.

Water resources are of paramount importance for human survival, but CC is increasingly impacting the accessibility and superiority of water in numerous regions across the globe. As the climate warms, the hydrological cycle is being disturbed, advancing to change in precipitation patterns, evapotranspiration, and runoff. This, in turn influences the availability of freshwater resources, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions. CC has led to over 80% of the global population facing significant water stress. India, a nation that is already experiencing water scarcity, is particularly susceptible to the adverse effects of CC on its water resources (Vörösmarty et al. 2000). The country's dependence on monsoon rains for agricultural production and the rapid growth of urban centres has put tremendous pressure on its water resources. CC is exacerbating these problems, leading to water scarcity, poor water quality, and increasing frequency of droughts and floods. Ministry of Water Resources, Government of India (2013) found that the country's major river basins are experiencing changes in precipitation patterns, snowmelt, and glacial melt, which is affecting the availability of water. Extreme weather phenomena, such as floods and droughts, are becoming regular and severe. Chennai floods in 2015 were caused by unprecedented rainfall, which led to severe flooding and disaster. Monsoon rainfall in India is becoming increasingly variable, with more intense rainfall events and longer dry spells (Trenberth et al. 2014). This has significant implications for agricultural production, as the timing and amount of rainfall are critical for crop growth. Changes in rainfall patterns can have an effect on water quality, as heavy rainfall can result in runoff, leading to soil erosion and the pollution of water sources. Using long-term data, Mann & Gupta (2022) examine rainfall and temperature patterns in Konkan Goa and coastal Karnataka of the Western Ghats. They identify patterns and investigate the association between Indian summer monsoon rainfall (ISMR) and the El Nino–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) by using parametric analysis and Student's t-test. The findings are useful for developing CC plans in the Western Ghats. CC is also influencing the quality of water resources, especially in developing nations, where the water treatment infrastructure is often insufficient. The impact of CC on water quality is expected to be most severe in India, where poor sanitation and limited access to clean water are already major challenges. CC is likely to exacerbate these problems, leading to an increase in waterborne diseases and other health problems. Apart from its influence on water quantity and quality, CC is also having an impact on water infrastructure, including dams and irrigation systems. CC is expected to raise the incidence of extreme weather events, such as floods and droughts, posing a threat to water infrastructure and causing disruptions to water supply systems (Hirabayashi et al. 2013). In India, many of the country's dams and irrigation systems are already overtaxed, and CC will possibly aggravate these problems, leading to an increase in water insecurity. To tackle the repercussions of CC on water resources, swift action is imperative at the global, national, and local levels. Globally, countries must collaborate to curtail GHG emissions and alleviate the impact of CC on water resources. This requires a concerted effort to shift towards low-carbon economies and invest in renewable energy and sustainable infrastructure. In order to evaluate the impact of CC on water resources, researchers have conducted various hydrological model studies. Some of the models used in the study are listed in Table 3 below.

However, inadequate data and limitations in existing models can hinder precise predictions regarding CC impacts on water resources (Sivakumar & Stefanski 2007; Bates et al. 2008). In addition, limited financial resources hinder effective responses to CC impacts (Olmstead & Stavins 2009) necessitating increased funding and innovative financing mechanisms. Existing policies often fall short in addressing speedily evolving climate impacts (Cosgrove & Loucks 2015), highlighting the need for an integrated policy approach. Moreover, CC aggravates existing socioeconomic discrepancies, affecting equitable access to water resources (Bullard & Johnson 2000; Sullivan et al. 2006). Strategic recommendations encompass enhanced data collection and modelling through investments in advanced techniques (Taylor et al. 2012), increased funding allocation, an integrated policy framework, and targeted interventions to address disparities. Looking forward, technological innovations such as AI, remote sensing and climatic models hold promise for improved data accuracy and modelling (Deoli & Rana 2019; Rawat et al. 2019; Tsionas & Andrikopoulos 2020; Rautela et al. 2023), while interdisciplinary research will provide a detailed understanding of CC impacts. Investments in climate-resilient infrastructure, international cooperation, and knowledge sharing are emphasized for sustainable water management in the face of CC (Haddeland et al. 2014; Hurlimann & Wilson 2018).

CC is widely recognized as the substantial threat to global biodiversity. The impacts of CC on biodiversity are intricate and varied, influencing species distribution, abundance, phenology, and community structure. Biodiversity has been severely affected by CC, as it leads to species loss at an alarming rate. Numerous studies have demonstrated a strong correlation between large-scale species dynamics and various climatic events, including those by Manes et al. (2021) and Ortiz et al. (2021). The suitable habitat ranges for marine, freshwater, and terrestrial organisms are shifting due to the rate and magnitude of CC. Changes in the relative abundance of species, shifts in their geographical range, alterations in activity timing, and utilization of microhabitats are some of the ways in which overall climate regime changes affect the health of ecosystems. A multitude of studies provide ample evidence of the devastating impacts of CC on global biodiversity. One of the most visible impacts of CC on biodiversity is the shift in the geographic range of species. Many species are already on the move, seeking cooler temperatures. As the planet warms up, 57% of 171 butterfly species in Europe have shifted their ranges northward, while only 21% have shifted southward (Chen et al. 2011). This shift is not only impacting butterflies, as other animal and plant species are also moving to find more suitable habitats. Plant species are shifting their ranges upslope by 29 m per decade in response to CC (Loarie et al. 2009). CC is causing shifts in the timing of various life cycle events, including reproduction, migration, and hibernation. This can result in mismatches between species that depend on each other, such as plants and their pollinators. On average, in the UK, the timing of spring events, like budburst, egg-laying, and migration, has advanced earlier by 5.1 days per decade over the last 25 years (Thackeray et al. 2010). These changes in the timing of life cycle events can result in a mismatch between species interactions, as the timing of the availability of resources for pollinators or the timing of food availability for migratory birds may not match their requirements, potentially leading to population declines. CC can also exacerbate other stressors such as habitat loss, fragmentation, and pollution, leading to declines in species populations and ultimately raise the risk of extinction. CC was the most significant factor contributing to extinction risk for a wide range of flora and fauna, particularly those with narrow ranges or specialized habitat requirements (Thomas et al. 2004). In addition, CC can also have cascading effects on ecosystem functions, such as carbon sequestration, nutrient cycling, and water cycling. These alterations can affect various species, leading to changes in community composition and ultimately impacting the functioning of ecosystems (Fussmann et al. 2014). The overwhelming evidence of the catastrophic effects of CC on worldwide biodiversity is evident. The shifts in ranges, phenological changes, species decline, and the subsequent ripple effects on ecosystems emphasize the pressing need for immediate action to alleviate and adapt to CC. Safeguarding biodiversity and its ecosystems must be a central focus of CC policies and actions at all levels, from local to global.

One of the most apparent consequences of CC on the economy is its impact on agriculture. CC can reduce crop yields and agricultural productivity, leading to food shortages, price increases, and hunger. Worldwide maize and wheat production could decline by 3%–8% for every 1 °C increase in global average temperature (Schlenker & Roberts 2009). It can lead to an increase in the incidence of extreme weather events, such as droughts, floods, and heatwaves, which can exacerbate the effects on crop yields and agricultural productivity. CC also has substantial impacts on energy systems, particularly on the production and consumption of fossil fuels. The change is likely to reduce global energy production from hydropower, and increase energy demand for cooling and heating, leading to higher energy prices and increased energy insecurity (IPCC 2014). CC can escalate the incidence and strength of extreme weather events, such as hurricanes and storms, which can cause damage to energy infrastructure and disrupt energy supplies. In addition, various forms of infrastructure, including transportation, buildings, and public facilities, are also susceptible to the impacts of CC. CC can cause a surge in the risk of damage from severe weather events, such as flooding and landslides, leading to increased repair costs and disruptions to economic activity. The annual cost of coastal flooding could reach up to $100 billion by 2100, with the majority of the costs borne by developing countries (Hallegatte et al. 2013). Human health is also affected by CC, particularly through increased exposure to heatwaves, air pollution, and infectious diseases. CC could cause an additional 300,000 deaths per year by 2030, primarily due to increased heat exposure and the spread of vector-borne diseases (Haines et al. 2006). The economic impacts of CC are diverse and multifaceted, affecting a wide range of sectors and countries (Table 4). The effects of CC on agriculture, energy, infrastructure, and human health have the capacity to hinder economic growth and widen existing inequalities. Swift action is imperative to address and become accustomed to the consequences of CC, which includes investing in clean energy, enhancing the resilience of infrastructure, and bolstering public health systems. These actions can mitigate the economic costs of CC and foster sustainable economic development.

CC has been broadly studied for its substantial influence on forest ecosystems. The variability in climate has resulted in adverse effects on forests, including fluctuations in productivity, alterations in carbon dynamics, shifts in vegetation, and instances of soil exhaustion, drought, and heat stress in South Asian countries (Jhariya et al. 2014). These impacts have resulted in an overall reduction in forest area in the region, as well as increased risks of fires, storm surges, coastal erosion, and landslides in Bangladesh (Chow et al. 2019). These changes are of great concern, given the multitude of benefits that forests offer, including biodiversity protection, carbon sequestration, and the production of food, fibre, and medicinal products (Chitale et al. 2014). The intricate connections between traits, climate, and changing environmental conditions have had a profound impact on forest structure, distribution, and ecology. As a consequence, there is an increase in tree mortality and die-off, predominantly attributed to high temperatures and frequent drought events (Allen et al. 2015; Keenan et al. 2015; Greenwood et al. 2017). Several tree species, including sal, pine, and garjan, are facing threats due to climate-driven deforestation, habitat variation, and drought in South Asian countries. In addition, increasing temperatures and elevated carbon dioxide levels have been shown to increase insect pest invasions in forest trees, which can result in high numbers of offspring attacking the trees, thereby exacerbating the problem (Raza et al. 2015). It is clear that CC is having a significant influence on forest ecosystems, both in South Asia and beyond. The negative effects on forests, such as reduced forest area, increased risks of natural disasters, and higher frequency of tree mortality and die-off, have significant implications for biodiversity conservation, carbon sequestration, and the production of food, fibre, and medicinal products. There is an urgent requirement for adaptation policies to restore forests and address the growing demand for forest resources in Asia and globally. These strategies may involve reforestation initiatives, the cultivation of climate-resilient tree species, and endeavours to reduce GHG emissions, thereby mitigating the most severe impacts of CC.

Tourism is a versatile economic endeavour that offers immense opportunities for job growth, revenue generation, and substantial foreign exchange earnings. It also plays a crucial role in promoting cross-cultural understanding and fostering collaboration between nations. Furthermore, it provides a platform for entrepreneurship and contributes significantly to the overall development of a country (Arshad et al. 2018). The impacts of CC extend to various sectors, including the tourism industry, which heavily relies on climate as a critical resource for attracting visitors to specific regions (Gössling et al. 2012; Hall et al. 2015). Different locations have their peak seasons, and tourists choose destinations based on the compatibility of weather patterns during those periods, whether domestically or internationally. However, the significant variations in weather patterns caused by CC pose substantial challenges to the local and national economies of these areas (Bujosa et al. 2015).

Extensive research and reports have shed light on the consequences faced by the tourism industry due to CC. For example, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has highlighted a considerable decline in the duration of ski seasons globally, resulting in the loss of ski areas and significant shifts in the climate of popular tourist destinations (IPCC 2014). This has severe implications for winter tourism and associated businesses. The impacts of CC on tourism are not limited to skiing and winter destinations alone. Beach resorts may experience erosion and loss of coastal infrastructure due to rising sea levels and increased storm activity (Hall et al. 2015). In addition, the main finding of this study highlights that changing weather patterns can alter the availability and quality of natural attractions, affecting wildlife tourism and ecotourism sectors. Previous different studies indicated that due to CC the perfectly developed tourism spot, for example, ski resorts, islands, coastal areas, and wildlife tourism, will face adverse consequences of CC, which directly or indirectly affect the economical aspect as well. It is important to acknowledge the limitations of current research in this field. Furthermore, the economic implications of these impacts are not well quantified, making it difficult to gauge the exact magnitude of losses faced by local and national economies. However, it is recommended that promoting renewable energy, implementing sustainable transportation, eco-friendly accommodations, waste reduction and recycling programmes, climate-resilient infrastructure and community-led ecotourism can mitigate CC effects and promote sustainability in the tourism sector. Future perspectives in the field of CC and tourism call for more extensive and robust research to enhance our understanding of the relationship between CC and tourism. Development of effective adaptation strategies, innovative sustainable technologies, policy advocacy and collaboration, investment in climate-resilient infrastructure, tourist awareness and responsibility, international climate agreements and research, and data-driven decisions provides a roadmap for many stakeholders, including governments, local communities, tourism providers, and travellers themselves, to actively engage in promoting sustainable tourism. In addition, sustainable tourism practices, including promoting low-carbon travel options and reducing GHG emissions, can contribute to mitigating the adverse effects of CC on the tourism industry (Hall et al. 2015).

To comprehend and confront the consequences of CC, researchers have employed diverse modelling tools and techniques to simulate and forecast alterations in the climate system (Table 5). Climate models have been instrumental in projecting shifts in temperature, precipitation, sea level rise, and extreme weather events, along with their impacts on sectors like agriculture, forestry, water resources, and human health. Nonetheless, challenges persist due to limitations in data and uncertainties in model outputs, making effective decision-making a challenge. Therefore, continued research and collaboration are imperative to enhance the accuracy and reliability of climate models in tackling the pressing issue of CC.

This study has greatly enhanced our theoretical knowledge of the diverse impacts of CC on important sectors such as agriculture, economy, sea level rise, water resources, human health, biodiversity, forest ecosystems, and tourism. Each of these sectors is crucial in its own way, and this research has provided insights into the complex connections between CC and each sector. It offers valuable theoretical contributions that contribute to a comprehensive understanding. In the field of agriculture, research has highlighted the impacts of CC on crop yields, food security, and the livelihoods of farmers. This includes studying changing climate patterns, shifts in precipitation levels, and extreme weather events. The findings emphasize the importance of implementing sustainable agricultural practices, efficient resource management, and developing crop varieties that are resilient to CC. These measures aim to minimize negative effects and assure food security in a changing climate. Sea level rise highlights the serious impact it poses to coastal regions and island nations. It emphasizes the immediate necessity for implementing strategies that adapt and mitigate the effects in order to protect coastal communities, critical infrastructure, and biodiversity hotspots. These strategies include coastal protection measures, sustainable urban planning, and international cooperation aimed at minimizing the socioeconomic and environmental consequences of rising sea levels. CC compounds the strain on water resources, affecting both their quality and availability. Dwindling freshwater reserves, altered precipitation patterns, and increasing evaporation rates contribute to water scarcity. Sustainable water management practices, water conservation, and investment in water-efficient technologies are vital to alleviate the stress on this indispensable resource. The effects of CC on human health, both physically and mentally, are profound. Elevated temperatures lead to a surge in heat-related illnesses, and changing patterns of infectious diseases exacerbate health risks. Vulnerable communities are disproportionately affected, highlighting the urgent need for health policies that address these emerging challenges. CC threatens the rich biodiversity of our planet. Habitats are being altered or destroyed, pushing numerous species to the brink of extinction. Conservation efforts, sustainable land use practices, and habitat restoration initiatives are essential to preserve our planet's diverse array of species and ecosystems. Forests, our natural carbon sinks, face a dual threat from deforestation and CC. Rising temperatures and altered precipitation patterns affect forest health and biodiversity. Conservation, afforestation, and sustainable forest management strategies are indispensable to combat this crisis and ensure the well-being of our planet. Tourism, a significant economic contributor, is deeply entwined with CC. Fragile ecosystems and natural wonders that attract tourists are under threat. Sustainable tourism practices that focus on minimizing the environmental impact, fostering conservation, and educating travellers are vital to strike a harmonious balance.

It is clear that the development of technology is essential in our fight against this pressing worldwide challenge. Advancements in carbon capture and storage technologies, including direct air capture, alongside renewable energy technologies such as solar and wind power, as well as energy storage systems like advanced batteries and pumped hydro-storage, play a pivotal role in reducing GHG emissions and fostering sustainability. Renewable energy sources are now a very competitive source of electricity, thanks to advances in solar and wind technology that have increased both their efficiency and their cost-effectiveness. Energy storage technologies, particularly battery technology developments, guarantee a steady power supply even from sporadic renewable sources, improving grid stability, and reliability. Carbon capture and storage technologies offer a promising means to capture CO₂ emissions from various sources, thereby mitigating their impact on the atmosphere and climate. Electric vehicles, with their improved battery technology and integration into smart transportation systems, contribute significantly to sustainable mobility by reducing the reliance on fossil fuels and minimizing emissions from the transportation sector. Similarly, energy-efficient buildings, precision agriculture, and reforestation technologies play crucial roles in reducing overall carbon footprints and enhancing sustainability. One of the emerging advancements highlighted is hydrogen technology, especially green hydrogen production. Green hydrogen, produced using renewable energy, has immense potential as a clean energy carrier and feedstock for various industrial processes, offering a pathway to decarbonize hard-to-abate sectors. However, an integrated and interdisciplinary strategy is crucial in addition to these technological improvements. This strategy combines mitigation and adaptation tactics in recognition of their interdependence and ability to provide more beneficial and long-lasting results. Harmonizing and maximizing the impact of these policies requires global cooperation, supported by increased finance and knowledge exchange, especially when aiding developing countries in their efforts to combat CC. Moreover, this review emphasizes the need to address limitations and challenges in our pursuit of combating CC. Data gaps, technology limitations, economic and political difficulties, as well as behavioural and cultural barriers that prevent the adoption of climate-friendly practices, are some of these. To remove these obstacles, it is essential to do ongoing research and development, update policies, and engage the community effectively. Looking ahead, we might have optimism for a sustainable and resilient future by anticipating additional technological developments, a shift towards more aggressive climate legislation, and creative funding structures. Resilience and adaptation strategies need to be prioritized to ensure that communities and infrastructure are prepared to cope with the inevitable effects of CC.

The authors thank the Director, Govind Ballabh Pant Institute of Engineering and Technology, Pauri Garhwal, Uttarakhand, and the Head of the Civil Engineering Department, GBPIET Pauri Uttarakhand, for providing facilities to make the present study possible.

A.R. and D.K. conceptualized the study, performed the methodology, did formal analysis and investigated the study; A.R. wrote the original draft; A.R., D.K., and B.S.K. wrote, reviewed, and edited the article; D.K. and B.S.K. supervised the study.

All relevant data are included in the paper or its Supplementary Information.

The authors declare there is no conflict.