Water resources in Pakistan: a comprehensive overview and management challenges

The contemporary global scenario of water resources is marked by increasing challenges, driven by factors such as growing population, climate change, and suboptimal water management practices. These factors precipitate a significant imbalance between water demand and supply, catalyzing water scarcity, and escalating conflicts over water allocations (Komariah & Matsumoto 2019). Thus, effective management of water resources is essential to addressing these issues and guaranteeing everyone has long-term access to clean, sufficient water.

The governance of water resources in Pakistan is challenged by limited storage facilities and the suboptimal management of dams and reservoirs, highlighting the need for infrastructure improvements (Bukhari et al. 2024). Additionally, the lack of adequate infrastructure for wastewater treatment further compounds the issue, increasing the extent of contamination (Parveen & Khan 2023). With a population surpassing 240 million, it struggles to meet its water demands due to inefficient water management practices and climate change impacts (Jamil et al. 2021).

The present review comprehensively assesses Pakistan's water resources from a water resource management perspective. It explores the current water resources, practices, and their challenges. Additionally, it proposes a conceptual framework to manage water resources more sustainably. This framework could assist policymakers in identifying connections among various factors to fulfill future water resource needs.

This review was carried out by establishing a straightforward research question to identify challenges and solutions in water resource management in Pakistan. We searched electronic databases, including Google Scholar, Scopus, and Web of Science, using a combination of keywords such as ‘water resources’, ‘Pakistan’, ‘water scarcity’, and ‘sustainable management’. The search was limited to articles published between 2010 and 2024. We included studies that provided empirical data on water management practices in Pakistan, excluding those that did not directly address our core research themes.

Table 1 shows Pakistan's annual renewable surface water resources in three hydrological zones of the Indus Basin, the Kharan Desert, and the Makran Coast.

Pakistan's climate is significantly influenced by two principal precipitation patterns: the summer Monsoon and the winter Western Disturbances. The Monsoon brings substantial rainfall from July to September, averaging about 200 mm (United Nations Development Programme 2016), predominantly affecting the eastern parts of the country. In contrast, Western Disturbances are responsible for winter precipitation. Precipitation varies across different regions, from less than 100 mm annually in arid zones of Baluchistan and Sindh to over 1,500 mm in the moist highlands. The Gilgit Baltistan region, characterized by its glaciated terrain, experiences snowfall exceeding 5,000 mm annually at altitudes above 5,000 m, highlighting the vast spatial heterogeneity in Pakistan's precipitation (United Nations Development Programme 2016). Despite these variations, rainfall remains irregular and insufficient across the country (Kahlown & Majeed 2003).

The upper Indus River Basin in Pakistan, spanning an area of 13,680 km², is the most extensive collection of glaciers outside the polar regions, constituting about 3% of its mountainous landscape (Ahmed et al. 2007). The surface water system is critically dependent on glacial meltwater, accounting for 70% of its flow, a figure that highlights the vulnerability of Pakistan's water resources to climate variability and change (Yasin et al. 2021). The snowfall occurs between October and March, and the melting process usually starts from late May to August, providing ample water supply to the Indus River System (IRS) (Ishaque et al. 2023). However, the shocking rate of glacier melt, approximately 2.3% annually due to global warming, poses a significant threat to water security (Yasin et al. 2021). Table 2 shows the names of all the famous glaciers of Pakistan and their covered area (Kamal et al. 2012).

Groundwater is a crucial source of Pakistan's water resource system, with an estimated 150 billion cubic meters volume. It is the principal source for over 60% of the country's irrigation requirements and about 90% of its water provisions (JatBaloch et al. 2022). The IRS and rainfall are vital contributors to replenishing Pakistan's groundwater aquifers. Despite its critical role in sustaining agriculture and meeting domestic water needs, aquifers face challenges, including depletion in certain regions due to over-extraction and inadequate recharge (Akhter et al. 2021). After China, India, and the United States, Pakistan is the fourth-largest groundwater consumer globally, with irrigation comprising 10 times more water than other uses (Ahmad et al. 2023).

A hydro-economic analysis under various Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) climate and socio-economic scenarios to project future water demands in the Upper Indus Basin predicted an increasing demand due to rapid population growth and heightened water requirements, emphasizing the need for robust management strategies to cope with potential shortages and sustain water availability for diverse uses (Amin et al. 2018).

The sustainability of water resource management in the Indus Basin under changing climatic and socio-economic conditions emphasized the importance of increasing water productivity to counterbalance the rising demands against shrinking supplies, stressing strategic planning, and infrastructural development to enhance the basin's resilience to climatic variabilities (Archer et al. 2010). Water supply and demand in Pakistan have been severely out of balance over the past 28 years due to changing water demands brought on by population expansion and extended irrigated regions (Janjua et al. 2021).

The world's most extensive contiguous irrigation system, the Indus Basin Irrigation System, provides essential irrigation to the agricultural sectors of Pakistan (Basharat 2019). This system consumes 80–92% of the country's available water resources (Briscoe et al. 2005), making this sector a leading consumer of surface water and groundwater.

The 2018 National Water Policy states that more than 50% of canal water diverted from the Indus system does not reach the fields because of the inefficiency of the irrigation system. Consequently, approximately 1 million tube wells, extracting around 67,842.5 million m³ of groundwater, meet nearly 20% of the requirements (Ali et al. 2022).

Provincially, agriculture water management plays a dominant role, overseen by Provincial Irrigation Departments and Provincial Agriculture Departments (Aslam et al. 2021). Investments in capacity development and administration training for agricultural water management are required.

Pakistan's ability to store water in its major reservoirs (Mangla, Tarbela, and Chashma) is a cornerstone of its water management strategy. Initially, these super reservoirs' collective storage capacity was 19.42 billion cubic meters (Ahmad et al. 2012). However, they face significant siltation challenges. The two major reservoirs, Tarbela and Mangla, have siltation issues. Due to silt deposition, both reservoirs' storage capacities have decreased by 32 and 20%, respectively (Sattar et al. 2017), and by 2025, the storage capacity of reservoirs is expected to be reduced further by 57% (Hussain et al. 2020).

Compared with global standards, the storage duration of Pakistan's reservoirs is concerning. While international norms recommend at least 120 days of storage capacity, these Pakistani reservoirs are currently able to hold water for a mere 30 days (Dilawar 2022), which amounts to only 15% of its annual river flow (Janjua et al. 2021). This is very little compared with the Colorado and Murray Darling Rivers' 900 days, the Orange River in South Africa's 500 days, and the Peninsular Rivers of India's 120–220 days storage capacity (Qureshi & Sayed 2014). Due to less storage capacity, the normal flow to the Arabian Sea during floods has also significantly increased, an enormous threat to financial and human lives (Dilawar 2022).

According to the Pakistan Water Sector Strategy, to accommodate the anticipated demand of 165 billion cubic meters, storage capacity must be increased by 22 billion cubic meters by 2025. Pakistan must make the building of new storage facilities a top priority (Janjua et al. 2021). If no more storage facilities are constructed soon, canal diversion rates will stay the same, and the gap will grow by 12% during the next 10 years (Hussain et al. 2020).

Pakistan's water sector is currently facing a formidable long-term risk, primarily because of climate change, which poses an external risk to the country's water resources (Young et al. 2019). Pakistan is one of the countries experiencing severe water stress, and its current water supplies are quite sensitive to climate change (Haider et al. 2020). Additionally, groundwater dynamics are intricately linked to climate variability, which influences soil moisture regimes, recharge rates, and the incidence of hydrological extremes (Mall et al. 2006).

Building on this understanding, the profound dependency of Pakistan on the IRS demonstrates its acute vulnerability to climate changes (Yang et al. 2014), a situation worsened by empirical evidence of substantial reductions in Himalayan glacial mass over recent decades. This glacial retreat has sparked concerns about the potential disappearance of these glaciers as early as 2035 (Hussain et al. 2020). The consequences of glacier melt and changes in precipitation patterns introduce considerable uncertainty and pose a major scientific challenge for the region (Janjua et al. 2021). In light of these challenges, significant research has highlighted the global impact of climate change on water and soil resources, emphasizing the intertwined threats to food security specifically evident in Pakistan's agricultural practices (Imran 2018).

Moreover, the effects of mismanagement of water resources in Pakistan, compounded by climate change, suggested an integrated approach to risk management and resource distribution (Bukhari & Sayal 2011). These studies collectively underline the increasing water stress, the necessity for effective water management strategies, and the critical need for research focused on sustainable solutions to combat these evolving challenges under global climate change.

Transboundary water resource management between India and Pakistan involves complex hydro-political dynamics, primarily governed by the historic Indus Water Treaty of 1960, which delineated the hydrological purview between the two nations, allocating the western rivers (Indus, Jhelum, and Chenab) to Pakistan, with India retaining rights to the eastern tributaries (Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej) (Basharat 2019). The Indus Waters Treaty permits development in India, which has resulted in a significant decrease in the amount of water entering the Indus from its eastern tributaries (Young et al. 2019). This situation is exacerbated by climatic shifts, compelling Pakistan to increasingly depend on cryospheric meltwaters (Hassan et al. 2016). Pakistan has legitimate worries about India's purported plans to build several dams on rivers.

The other major transboundary tributary of the Indus River is the Kabul River, which originates from Afghanistan; Pakistan and Afghanistan have never signed a mutual management agreement. To prevent harm to Pakistan's irrigation-based agriculture, these problems and disagreements must be overcome (Qureshi 2011).

Within Pakistan, the 1991 Accord established standards for water distribution because almost all of the Indus River's major tributaries are found on the country's eastern side, leaving less water available on the western side. The Indus Water Apportionment Accord of 1991 is the central Accord that divides water among Pakistan's provinces (also called the Indus Water Accord or Water Accord) (Kamal et al. 2012). Disparities in water allocation and inadequate real-time flow monitoring catalyze distrust between provinces, with insufficient institutional capacity for data synthesis compounding the challenge (Young et al. 2019).

Table 3 summarizes the provincial water allotments, reflecting the volumes designated under the 1991 Accord, thus underscoring the imperative for revisiting and revising these allocations in alignment with contemporary hydrological and social difficulties.

Groundwater depletion is a multifaceted challenge in Pakistan, precipitated by unregulated extraction and compounded by inadequate research and governance frameworks (Yasin et al. 2021). Currently projected at 0.8, the groundwater recharge-to-discharge ratio defines a troubling trend of plummeting water tables across various regions, signifying a looming crisis if unchecked (Bhatti et al. 2017). A case study highlighted the alarming decline in groundwater levels in the Kuchlagh sub-basin of the Pishin Lora Basin in Balochistan over the past 30 years. This study provides a compelling look at the hydrogeological challenges and calls for urgent sustainable water management practices to halt or reverse these trends (Steenbergen et al. 2015).

Similarly, another study investigated the impact of urban expansion on groundwater levels in Peshawar. The study used advanced geospatial techniques to quantify the effect of increased impervious surfaces on groundwater recharge, pointing to the critical need for integrating urban planning with groundwater sustainability (Khan & Ali 2019). A country-level study tracked significant decreases in aquifer storage across the country. This comprehensive analysis revealed a worrying trend of overexploitation of groundwater, particularly for irrigation purposes, compromising the long-term sustainability of groundwater resources (Ahmed et al. 2019).

The scholarly discourse calls for an integrated approach that combines policy innovation, community engagement, and technological solutions to address this pressing environmental challenge.

Water resource contamination poses a critical challenge to the developing world, where inadequate governance, limited technical expertise, and financial limitations undermine the management of freshwater resources (Azizullah et al. 2011). Freshwater accessibility as freshwater contamination problem is severe within Pakistan (Zahra & Khan 2019). The country ranked 9th among the top 10 countries having minimal access to safe drinking water globally; overall, only 39% of the population has access to safe drinking water (Zahra & Khan 2019). The Pakistan Council of Research in Water Resources (PCRWR) has raised alarms, indicating an overwhelming majority of the country's water quality does not meet healthful standards, with up to 90% of resources exhibiting below-average quality (PCRWR 2021). Industrial wastes are often released without adequate treatment. Bacterial contamination in drinking water presents a stark hazard (Young et al. 2019).

A comprehensive review of heavy metal pollutants across various regions in Pakistan highlighted the widespread nature of heavy metal presence in groundwater and surface water (Waseem et al. 2014). Another study raised concerns about the contamination of ground and surface water with pathogens and chemicals due to inadequate waste management and treatment systems (Daud et al. 2017).

Many regions in Pakistan are plagued by waterborne diseases due to coliform bacteria and other pathogens in the water supply, stressing the need for urgent and effective water quality management strategies (Nabeela et al. 2014).

The delayed endorsement of the National Water Policy, proposed in 1998 and only ratified in 2018, alongside inter-provincial disagreements and prolonged dam construction setbacks, illustrates the governance challenges present (Yasin et al. 2021).

Despite the improvements to the irrigated sector in the Provincial Irrigation and Drainage Act of 1997, which envisioned a more vital role for farmers and farmer institutions in the management of surface (canal) water no role in groundwater monitoring or management was identified for these farmer institutions (Bhatti et al. 2017).

A lack of enforcement of existing regulations and insufficient compliance with implementation processes afflict Pakistan's water resource management. While regulations appear comprehensive on paper, their practical application is often neglected, leading to violations and a persistent lack of accountability.

The intricate web of water management in Pakistan is flawed by deficiencies, including insufficient data, outdated planning mechanisms, over-extraction, contamination, and agricultural inefficiency (Young et al. 2019). There is a critical lack of precise and up-to-date data on water availability, usage patterns, and pollution levels that hampers effective water management. Inadequate groundwater monitoring impedes accurate assessments of water depletion rates, complicating sustainable management efforts.

The impacts of climate change on water resources, such as changes in water availability and precipitation patterns, are not adequately addressed in Pakistan's water policies.

The climate-water governance is characterized by weak institutions and inadequate linkages at both federal and provincial levels. Various institutions, such as the Ministry of Climate Change (MOCC) and Environmental Protection Agencies (EPAs), manage climate-related matters, but provincial climate ministries or departments are notably absent. However, issues arise due to the absence of climate and water governance integration, with limited coordination, communication, and accountability among these institutions (Yasin et al. 2021).

There is a significant gap in incorporating climate adaptation measures, essential for building resilience against evolving environmental conditions. Water resource allocation, distribution, and utilization among different stakeholders and government levels have become more complex due to the impacts of climate change over the last 20 years (Young et al. 2019).

Policies often fail to provide clear guidelines for constructing climate-resilient infrastructure or adopting technologies that facilitate efficient water usage.

A paradigm shift towards holistic governance in managing Pakistan's water resources is essential, particularly in the face of ineffective political leadership and bureaucratic inertia. Substantial policy reforms are needed to strengthen institutional capacities, enhance regulatory frameworks, and promote community engagement. Engaging local stakeholders, including farmers in Sindh and Punjab provinces, in participatory irrigation management can significantly improve the management and sustainability of water resources (Arfan 2022). It can ensure sustainable practices and protect groundwater resources amid increasing agricultural demands (Nasir et al. 2021). Additionally, integrated farm resource management practices such as deficit irrigation, modified planting patterns, and refined cultural techniques could elevate water productivity. The overarching goal is to foster sustainable water management practices that can comprehensively address Pakistan's countless challenges, including water scarcity, pollution, and the impacts of climate change.

Strengthening institutional frameworks and policies is critical in augmenting water resource management efficacy, particularly against climate-related challenges. The fragmentation of responsibilities among various institutions has caused inefficiencies in water resource management, necessitating centralized coordination for improved water governance systems. Concurrently, integrating climate change adaptation strategies into water resource management is paramount. Such strategic imperatives underscore the pivotal role of institutional fortitude in advancing sustainable and efficient water management practices. Notably, attention to groundwater management, a critical component of Pakistan's water resources, is indispensable. An integrated water resource management (IWRM) approach, including surface and groundwater, necessitates technological solutions and underscores the exigency for institutional reforms fostering cooperation among disparate water-related departments (Qureshi 2020).

By fortifying institutional capacities, synthesis and dissemination of robust data, technological advancement, and efficacious conflict mediation can be facilitated, thus contributing towards enhanced water resource management efficacy (Yasin et al. 2021).

Pakistan must devise and execute a comprehensive water pricing plan to dispel the notion of water as an infinitely free resource. Such a plan holds promise in fostering conservation, optimizing water resource allocation, and generating revenue for infrastructure improvements (Qamar et al. 2018).

The global precedence of water pricing strategies as a policy reform tool underscores its efficacy in aligning economic incentives with sustainable usage, especially in high-demand sectors such as agriculture (Schrecongost et al. 2004).

Scholarly studies emphasize its significance as a policy reform tool that can align economic incentives with sustainable usage; for instance, rural West Africa reveals how appropriate water pricing strategies can support small-scale irrigation and community water resources, enhancing access and sustainability (Schrecongost et al. 2004). Furthermore, China's nationwide implementation of agricultural water pricing policies demonstrates a systematic approach to addressing water scarcity and promoting efficient water use in the agricultural sector. This policy initiative has significantly improved water resource management, showcasing the potential for policy-induced conservation measures (Zhang & Oki 2023).

Effective implementation of water pricing strategies requires careful consideration of local economic, environmental, and social factors to ensure that the policies are impartial and achieve their proposed outcomes.

Pakistan grapples with diverse challenges in managing its water infrastructure, necessitating strategic investments in infrastructure and technological advancements. Scientific, technical, and policy support is pivotal in managing and enhancing the country's existing water resources infrastructure, which carries a significant economic value (Briscoe et al. 2005). IWRM approaches are crucial in effectively addressing Pakistan's multifaceted water management challenges. Such integrative approaches, inclusive of socio-economic and environmental considerations, are poised to optimize soil and water resources management through advanced water harvesting and infrastructure optimization strategies, including treating and reusing wastewater (Laghari et al. 2012).

Furthermore, resilient technologies and local adaptation strategies warrant integration to enhance water efficiency and provide for the needs of vulnerable communities. Incorporating ‘hard’ infrastructure with technological advancements and effective governance mechanisms emerges as necessary for successful climate-water management in Pakistan (Yasin et al. 2021).

Water resources management from a global perspective, particularly in developing countries, can help Pakistan learn valuable lessons to improve its approach and policy framework. Implementing decision support systems in African countries demonstrates the potential of these systems to enhance water management by integrating data-driven insights with policy-making processes (Giupponi & Sgobbi 2013). This model could be adapted to Pakistan's context to improve its water governance capabilities.

Furthermore, India, Pakistan's neighboring country, actively manages its water resources by harvesting rainwater and adopting efficient irrigation techniques (Rockström 2003). This focused approach ensures sustainable utilization and aligns with long-term conservation goals (Vijay et al. 2011).

Egypt leads Africa in water management despite its dry climate as it limits irrigation, conserves water, and researches alternatives, including seawater desalination and reuse of treated wastewater. These facilities have been built through public–private partnerships (Takouleu 2021).

Countries such as Tanzania have seen significant benefits from implementing rainwater harvesting (RWH) systems. These systems provide a critical water source for agricultural and domestic use and play a crucial role in reducing flood risks and replenishing groundwater. Using local materials and skills to construct infiltration pits and small dams, RWH can be a cost-effective solution even in resource-limited settings (Huang et al. 2021).

These practices ensure sustainable water use and empower local communities, a strategy that could address some of the water management challenges in Pakistan.

The need for international collaboration in managing transboundary rivers is crucial for Pakistan, as highlighted by scholarly research on water governance and diplomacy emphasized the vital role of cooperative frameworks in addressing shared water resource challenges (Panikkar et al. 2019). These collaborations are important for conflict resolution, sustainable water management, and regional stability.

For Pakistan, enhancing diplomatic engagements and establishing robust data-sharing protocols with neighboring countries such as Afghanistan and India are crucial steps (Syed & Choudhury 2018). The lack of efficient information sharing on the cross-border Indus River hinders holistic water resource management (Basharat 2019).

Furthermore, Pakistan can learn from successful international examples of transboundary water management. Mekong River Commission, for instance, provides insights into how structured dialogue and joint management bodies can lead to equitable and sustainable water resource management among multiple countries.

In practice, Pakistan could initiate and contribute to similar multinational water management commissions, invest in shared water monitoring and management technologies, and engage in continuous dialogue to ensure the equitable distribution of water resources. These efforts will require political will, diplomatic strategies, and substantial infrastructure investments to facilitate inclusive river basin management.

Investment in water harvesting and recycling presents a viable solution for Pakistan to enhance its water resource management, mitigate water scarcity, and address wastewater management and pollution control issues. Integrating water harvesting technologies and advanced wastewater treatment and recycling strategies is critical for sustainable water management.

A study by Galvis et al. (2018) illustrates the efficiency of such integrated approaches in urban water management, highlighting the role of investments in greywater reuse and RWH to reduce water use and wastewater treatment costs. This approach not only aids in pollution control but also enhances the quality of water resources (Galvis et al. 2018).

Moreover, real-world applications, revealed that harvesting urban water resources, including rainwater, can significantly support sustainable water management. The case study from Filton Airfield, UK, underscores the potential of these technologies to meet various water demands and reduce dependence on conventional water sources (Kim et al. 2022).

Additionally, decentralized RWH and greywater reuse can be cost-effective solutions for urban areas. Such systems support sustainability and reduce infrastructure costs associated with large-scale water treatment plants (Zang et al. 2021).

Adopting these innovative water management solutions for Pakistan can improve water security, reduce environmental impact, and enhance public health outcomes. Strategic investments in these areas, supported by policy reforms and public–private partnerships, are essential to developing resilient water management systems capable of facing the challenges of increased urbanization and climate change.

The development of the framework commenced with a systematic review of existing literature to identify core areas critical to effective water management. It was refined through multiple revisions to ensure the framework effectively addressed real-world challenges. Each framework component was carefully adjusted to ensure it was relevant and applicable to the specific circumstances of Pakistan's water resource issues.

The framework addresses critical areas of water resource management, including policy and governance, infrastructure and technology, climate change adaptation, environmental and community sustainability, and education and awareness campaigns. Each framework branch is designed to provide actionable strategies that stakeholders can implement. The framework offers guidelines for integrated policy development and sectoral collaboration for policymakers. Urban planners can utilize the infrastructure and technology pathways to design water-efficient urban systems. Environmental agencies will find the sections on climate adaptation and environmental sustainability of particular relevance for developing resilience strategies against water-related impacts of climate change.

The framework is especially beneficial for government policymakers, who require a robust model for crafting and implementing water management policies. Secondly, urban planners and civil engineers focus on sustainable infrastructure development.

Thirdly, environmental NGOs and community organizations advocate for sustainable practices and educate the public about water conservation. Academic researchers and students in environmental science, hydrology, and urban development also need a comprehensive reference point for studying water management issues.

Effective policy and governance are essential for the sustainable management of water resources in Pakistan. The framework must prioritize IWRM approaches that enhance sectoral collaboration and actively involve local communities. This includes establishing transparent policies that ensure equitable water distribution and fostering stakeholder engagement to address water-related issues collaboratively.

To improve irrigation methods and water use efficiency. Implementing comprehensive data collection and integrated management systems will enable evidence-based decision-making, enhancing the overall efficiency of water resource management.

It is crucial to integrate climate change adaptation measures into the management framework. This includes developing climate-resilient infrastructure and establishing robust early warning systems to mitigate the impacts of climate variability on water resources. Strategies should be geared towards enhancing the resilience of water systems to ensure a sustainable water supply under changing climatic conditions.

Water resource management should also address social and environmental factors, incorporating cultural practices and the broader environmental impacts of water use. Engaging local populations in decision-making processes. This approach respects local cultural contexts and ensures that water management strategies are socially sustainable.

Education and awareness are pivotal in promoting sustainable water use and enhancing community involvement. Targeted educational campaigns should engage diverse stakeholders, including farmers, industry representatives, and urban populations, to raise awareness about water conservation and management techniques.

In conclusion, the efficient management of water resources in Pakistan requires a multifaceted approach incorporating both advanced technological solutions and strategic policy reforms.

Firstly, addressing the challenges posed by transboundary water resources is imperative. Pakistan must enhance international collaborations and agreements, similar to successful models observed in the Mekong River basins, to ensure equitable and sustainable water distribution. This comprises the establishment of joint management commissions and the adoption of shared water monitoring technologies, which have proven effective in other international contexts.

Secondly, investments in water harvesting and recycling technologies present a significant opportunity for improving water efficiency. Implementing decentralized systems for RWH and greywater recycling can improve pressure on existing water supply systems, reduce environmental impacts, and provide a scalable, cost-effective solution to urban and rural areas.

Thirdly, policy reforms are crucial in fostering a favorable environment for the above technological implementations. The integration of water pricing strategies, as evidenced by their success in regions such as countries of Africa, could encourage conservation and support the financial sustainability of water infrastructure projects.

Moreover, the impact of climate change on water resources necessitates integrating adaptive water management strategies. Enhancing groundwater recharge and promoting climate-resilient crop varieties can reduce vulnerability to climate variability and ensure sustainability.

Finally, empowering local stakeholders through participatory governance and education initiatives can enhance the effectiveness of water policies and encourage sustainable practices at the grassroots level.

By prioritizing transboundary water management, technology adoption, climate change adaptation, policy reform, and community engagement, Pakistan can develop a resilient water management system that addresses current challenges and prepares for future demands.

This study was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Nos. 51979285 & 52192671), the Chinese National Key Research and Development Program (No. 2022YFC3090600), the Research Fund of the State Key Laboratory of Simulation and Regulation of Water Cycle in River Basin (Grant No. SKL2022TS11), and the Open Research Fund of Key Laboratory of River Basin Digital Twinning of Ministry of Water Resources.

The data used in this paper have been extracted entirely from secondary sources. All references to these data sources are clearly mentioned within the paper wherever the data are used.

The authors declare there is no conflict.