Climate change poses a significant threat to the security and sustainability of global food systems, particularly in vulnerable regions such as Bangladesh. This paper comprehensively reviews the impact of climate change on food system security and sustainability in Bangladesh. Specifically, it examines the country's food system and, the climatic conditions endangering food systems and associated vulnerabilities. A systematic review methodology was adopted to select the relevant literature, based on predefined inclusion criteria and research questions. To mitigate selection bias, the research team independently screened and evaluated the articles for inclusion in the review process. Our review reveals increasing trends in temperature fluctuations and irregular rainfall occurrences, posing significant challenges in terms of crop management and planning. The occurrence of floods due to extreme rainfall and sea-level rise exacerbates food insecurity in affected areas. Additionally, moderate to severe droughts have been identified in some regions. The paper also evaluates the effectiveness of current adaptation initiatives and the degree of integration among relevant stakeholders. Through this analysis, the paper emphasizes the importance of local climate-change adaptation strategies and stakeholder collaboration in mitigating the adverse impacts of climate-change on food system security.

  • The study identifies the climate-change challenges to Bangladesh's fragile food system.

  • Economic losses and rice production decline are identified due to climate change.

  • Emphasis on local adaptation initiatives to build resilience among farmers.

  • Recognition of challenges in existing adaptation efforts.

  • Call for government-led scaling-up of adaptation programs to enhance food system security and sustainability.

Climate change is increasingly undermining food system security worldwide (Gregory et al. 2005; Bandara & Cai 2014; Misra 2014; A. Rahman et al. 2022; M. M. Rahman et al. 2022; M. T. Rahman et al.2022). Food security is the ability of every human to consistently have ‘physical and economic access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food’ (Food & Agricultural Organization [FAO] 1996). However, one in nine people worldwide (805 million) faces food shortages (Roy et al. 2019). Extreme climatic events, such as increased temperature, salinity intrusion, droughts, cyclones, floods, and prolonged and shortened rainy seasons, significantly contribute to food insecurity by lowing agricultural productivity and threatening rural livelihoods (Irfanullah 2009; Biswas et al. 2015; Dano et al. 2019; Abubakar 2021). Globally, climate change contributes to a 1%–5% reduction in crop production per decade compared with the baseline situation devoid of climate change (IPCC 2014). Even if global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions were halted, it would take more than a millennium to return to pre-industrial climatic conditions (Rahman & Anik 2020). A rapid increase in global warming has been observed since 1950 (IPCC 2007). Moreover, Global South countries are the most susceptible to climate-change impacts with minimum adaptation capacity (Ayers et al. 2014; Hossain et al. 2019; Hasan et al. 2020; Abubakar & Alshammari 2023).

Bangladesh stands among nations highly susceptible to climate-change impacts worldwide. About 40 million people in the country are food insecure, while an additional 11 million experience acute hunger, plus other risks from climate-change impacts (WFP 2016). The Global Climate Risk Index 2019 ranked the nation as the ninth most climate-vulnerable worldwide, having experienced 190 climatic events between 1997 and 2017 (Germanwatch 2019). Annually, the country receives about 1,073 million acre-feet (MAF) (equivalent to 1.323 trillion m3) of surface water and 203 MAF (equivalent to 0.2503 trillion m3) of rainfall, intensified between July to September (BBS 2017). It has the world's longest delta intertwined with approximately 7,000 rivers, canals, and streams totaling about 22,155 km (Alam et al. 2018; Smith & Frankenberger 2018). Floods and soil erosion are commonplace in these disaster-prone areas, thereby disrupting the food system, the environment, and other socioeconomic activities (Ayers et al. 2014; Alam et al. 2020). The climatic events contribute to low crop-yields that result in increases in food prices, malnutrition, starvation, and migration (Mondal 2014). About 17% of cultivated land, forest, and aquatic resources could be inundated by only a 1 m sea-level rise, affecting about 17 million people relying on agriculture for livelihoods (Hoque et al. 2019; Hasan et al. 2020; A. Rahman et al. 2022; M. M. Rahman et al. 2022; M. T. Rahman et al. 2022). In southern Bangladesh, 40% of fertile land could be submerged by a 0.65 m sea-level rise (World Bank 2013). Thus, climatic change has a serious impact on the country's overall agriculture and food security.

The agriculture sector contributes 12.1% of Bangladesh's gross domestic product (GDP) and employs 39.71% of its workforce (World Bank 2020). The sector is expected to ensure food security according to the government's Vision 2021 (Planning Commission 2010). However, climate change threatens food security by actively interacting with the local environment that supports the food systems. The country's adaptive capacity is limited by its low GDP per capita of USD 1,788, adult literacy rate of 72.9%, and life expectancy of 72.3 years (UNDP 2019). As of 2015, about 31.5% of the total population lives below the poverty line and the population density is over 1,000 persons/km2 (WFP 2016). A study in 2018 reported that nearly 34.2% of children under the age of five were underweight, and 27% of mothers had chronic energy deficiency (BBS 2019). Sustaining food production during the moment of the climate crisis is important. Appropriate adaptation actions are required to counteract the increasing challenges of urbanization, land scarcity, and soil degradation (Alauddin & Sarker 2014; Abubakar 2021). The present study reviews the impacts of climate change on food system security and sustainability in Bangladesh. Prior studies have mostly investigated the impacts of changing rainfall, temperature, and humidity on agriculture, rather than the effects of overall climatic events on agricultural production and the entire food system and security (Hossain et al. 2018). Similar studies have also paid little attention to adaptation strategies. Therefore, this review article fills these knowledge gaps by analyzing the:

  • (a) challenges to the food system and security in Bangladesh,

  • (b) direct and indirect climate-change impacts on the food system and security,

  • (c) existing adaptation strategies, and

  • (d) contribution of stakeholder collaboration in climate-change adaptation and enhancing food security.

Our review aimed to systematically examine the literature on the intersection of climate change, natural disasters, and food security in Bangladesh. A comprehensive search strategy was developed to identify relevant articles from various sources, including academic databases, government literature repositories, and reference lists of key studies (Abubakar & Alshammari 2023). The search terms were carefully selected to capture a broad range of literature related to climate change and food security in Bangladesh. Articles were included in the review based on predefined inclusion criteria, which focused on relevance and quality. Specifically, studies discussing the impact of climate change and natural disasters on food security in Bangladesh, as well as those focusing on adaptation and mitigation strategies, were considered eligible for inclusion. The following research questions were formulated; (i) What are the key climatic factors and extreme weather events affecting food system security in Bangladesh? (ii) What are the current adaptation initiatives implemented in Bangladesh to address the impacts of climate change on food system security? (iii) How effective are these adaptation initiatives in reducing vulnerabilities and enhancing resilience within the food system? (iv) What gaps and challenges exist in stakeholder collaboration for adapting to climate-change impacts on food security, and how can these be addressed effectively? Moreover, articles with robust research methodologies, including empirical studies, case reports, and review articles, were prioritized to ensure the quality of the evidence reviewed.

The search strategy encompassed electronic databases such as Web of Science and Google Scholar, using combinations of keywords related to ‘climate change’, ‘natural disasters’, ‘food security’, and ‘Bangladesh’. The search was not restricted by publication date, language, or study design, aiming to capture a broad range of literature relevant to the subject matter.

To mitigate selection bias, the research team independently screened and evaluated the articles for inclusion in the review process. After screening, 184 references were selected. Any disagreements that arose during this screening were resolved through consensus among the authors. Furthermore, we utilized citation-tracking techniques to identify additional relevant literature that may not have been initially captured through our primary search methods. Figure 1 shows the methodology adopted for the review process.
Figure 1

Article selection methodology.

Figure 1

Article selection methodology.

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A food system refers to ‘the entire range of actors and their interlinked value-adding activities involved in the production, aggregation, processing, distribution, consumption, and disposal of food products’ (Nguyen 2018, p. 1). The production, processing, accessibility (distribution and sufficiency), and consumption of crops, fisheries, and meat are strongly related to food security (Gregory et al. 2005). Food security ensures that a food system always satisfies four key conditions: (a) physical and economic access for all people, i.e., universal coverage; (b) adequate supply; (c) food safety; and (d) nutrition (FAO 1996). In Bangladesh, the food system mainly relies on domestic agricultural production using 8.74 million ha, or about three-fifths of its total landmass. Rice is the main staple food, cultivated in about two-thirds of the gross cultivated area, providing 74% of the total calorie intake (Hossain et al. 2005). The country is the second-largest per capita consumer (200 kg/year) of rice globally, with aman, aus, and boro rice as the highest-consumed varieties (CIAT–World Bank 2017). Although rice and maize demand is met locally, wheat, fruits, onions, and cotton are largely imported (CIAT–World Bank 2017). In 2018, about 41,574,000 metric tonnes (MT) of crops were produced, consisting of 36,459,000 MT of rice, 1,287,000 MT of wheat, and 3,828,000 MT of Maize (BBS 2019).

Simultaneously, Figure 2 shows more compelling insight into Bangladesh's main agricultural sector from 2000 to 2022. The total cereal production, which includes barley, maize, millet, rice, and sorghum, exhibits a generally upward trajectory. Over this period, cereal production experienced a significant surge, growing by approximately 81.01%, while the expansion of agricultural land was comparatively modest, with a total increase of about 6.55% (between the years 2000 and 2021). This translates to an average annual growth rate of 3.16% for cereal production. The robust increase in cereal production relative to the expansion of land signals an improvement in land-use efficiency, suggesting that the agricultural sector has been successful in optimizing output per unit of land. However, agricultural employment witnessed a substantial decline of around 34.38% within the same period. This decline in agricultural employment could be attributed to factors such as increased mechanization, rural-to-urban migration, or a shift towards non-agricultural sectors. The positive trends in cereal production, stable agricultural land, and declining agricultural employment may indicate successful adaptation strategies or policies that have contributed to maintaining or increasing agricultural productivity. However, these trends do not necessarily imply immunity to future climate-change impacts. As the climate continues to change, the resilience of these positive trends needs to be evaluated in the context of evolving climate conditions, extreme weather events, and the potential for new agricultural challenges.
Figure 2

Agricultural yield and employment in Bangladesh (redrawn using the data from FAO (2023) based on available data).

Figure 2

Agricultural yield and employment in Bangladesh (redrawn using the data from FAO (2023) based on available data).

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Furthermore, the country exhibited a robust production of 4,981,000 MT of fish in 2018, with 75% sourced from inland areas (BBS 2019), making it the third-largest producer of inland fisheries worldwide (DoF 2019). The aquatic ecosystem is enriched with 293 varieties of freshwater fish, 475 marine fish, 24 exotic fish, and various vertebrate and invertebrate species (IUCN 2015). Fish constitutes at least 60% of the nation's entire protein consumption (DoF 2019). Additionally, Bangladesh maintained a livestock population of 55.40 million, comprising cattle, buffalo, goats, and sheep, alongside 344.02 million poultry, including chickens and ducks, in 2019 (MoF 2020). This diverse production spectrum reflects the multifaceted nature of the country's food system, incorporating both crop and livestock sectors to meet the dietary needs of its population.

The major challenges to Bangladesh's food system are primarily climate-related, with frequent occurrences of floods, tropical storms, droughts, landslides, and riverbank erosion causing colossal damage to life and property. Climate change disproportionately affects certain regions of the country, notably the Barind Tract (situated in the north west region), covering an area of 7,728 km2. This region experiences challenges including low rainfall, high temperatures, and thick clayey topsoil, which negatively impact food production (Islam et al. 2010). Furthermore, soil salinity resulting from inundation or seepage affects the coastal areas of southern Bangladesh (Dasgupta et al. 2014). Additionally, various other regions across the country grapple with challenges such as irregular rainfall patterns, increased evaporation rates, saline water intrusion, inundation caused by storm surges, and the practice of brackish shrimp farming (SRDI 2010). Soil salinity affects about 1.2 million ha (42.1%) of arable land in this area (NAPA 2009). Similarly, Haor wetland, a mosaic of different aquatic habitats, such as rivers, canals, floodplains, and a combination of interconnecting beaches located in the northeastern region and housing 19.37 million people, is being threatened by climate change (Chakraborty 2006). The natural and anthropogenic threats to the fishery and dry season farming in this local ecosystem include rising temperature, water-regulating structures on fish migration paths, sedimentation in rivers, soil and water pollution from overuse of pesticides, chemical fertilizers, sand, and stone mining, and land conversion (Uddin et al. 2008, 2013).

By 2030, climate change could reduce arable land efficiency at a cumulative rate of 5.0%, 13.0%, and 17.0%, respectively, for rice, wheat, and cereal grain output (Bandara & Cai 2014). Similarly, by 2050, land productivity is anticipated to decline, thereby reducing rice production by 8%–17% and wheat by 32% (World Bank 2020). According to a biophysical simulation model based on field experimental data from 2000 to 2008, the country's average rice production could decline by 33% by 2046–2065 (Karim et al. 2012). Climate change also reduces the groundwater level in the north west regions, thereby decreasing rice irrigation frequency by about 13 days (Shahid 2011). Climate change is also changing fodder composition and reducing the nutritional value of grass species, with an eventual effect on the livestock population (Kabir et al. 2019). It also directly impacts the forestry sector as alien species are invading the land instead of the native indigenous plants at an alarming rate, ultimately impacting the price of forest products (Al-Amin 2019). The nation is also among the top-ten vulnerable countries to climate-change impacts on the aquatic ecosystem (Hossain et al. 2018). The coastal region of the country, surrounded by the largest delta, is more prone to both human and artificial disasters, including floods, cyclones, drought, saltwater intrusion, sea-level rise, sedimentation, erosion, and landslides (Hoque et al. 2019).

Agriculture is a sector greatly affected by climate change globally (Thornton et al. 2011; Misra 2014). In Bangladesh, climatic events affect about one-third to half of the country every year, resulting in the loss of hundreds of people, injuring thousands, and damaging vast hectares of crops, properties, and infrastructure (WFP 2021). Although agriculture and its allied industries are the foundation of the economy, between 2009 and 2014, the estimated economic losses triggered by climate change were USD 833.73 million from crops, USD 133.92 million from fisheries, and USD 137.46 million from livestock (Biswas & Maniruzzaman 2019). The GDP from the sector has been declining by 3.1% annually, resulting in an estimated loss of USD 36 billion from 2005 to 2050 (World Bank 2020). The migration of displaced farmers to towns also causes population pressure because most of them settle in slums, on pathways, and in bus stations that lack basic services, including safe drinking water and sanitation (Chowdhury & Moore 2017).

In line with Gornall et al. (2010), the impacts of changing climatic conditions on food systems can be broadly categorized into two main categories: direct and indirect effects. As depicted in Figure 3, various climatic factors such as temperature fluctuations, alterations in rainfall patterns, occurrences of cyclones, tropical storms, flash floods, and droughts directly influence food production within Bangladesh. These direct impacts are critical determinants of agricultural productivity and can significantly affect crop yields and livestock production across the country. However, the ramifications of climate change on the food system extend beyond these direct effects. Indirect impacts, including saline water intrusion and the proliferation of pests and diseases, play a significant role in shaping the resilience and sustainability of food production systems.
Figure 3

Major climate-change challenges on the food system in Bangladesh (redrawn using information from FAO (2017)).

Figure 3

Major climate-change challenges on the food system in Bangladesh (redrawn using information from FAO (2017)).

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In the subsequent sections (Sections 4.1 and 4.2), we investigate deeper into the nuanced dynamics of these climate changes and their multifaceted impacts on the national food system. Through detailed examination and analysis, we aim to elucidate the complex interplay between climatic variables and food-security outcomes in Bangladesh. This detailed exploration offers a holistic understanding of the challenges and opportunities inherent in adapting to climate-change-induced disruptions within the food system.

Direct impacts

Temperature fluctuations

Food production is inextricably connected to temperature and atmospheric CO2 concentration. Bangladesh, being a humid country, experiences an average temperature of 26°C, which fluctuates between 15°C and 37°C throughout the year (FAO 2023). The mean temperature is anticipated to rise by 1.4°C and 2.4°C by 2050 and 2100, respectively. From 1970 to 2013, Maniruzzaman et al. (2019) reported a 4.0°C variation in the national average maximum temperature. A rising trend in temperatures has been detected between 1950 and 2010, particularly during the southwest monsoon and post-monsoon seasons (Khan & Awal 2009). Figure 4(a) shows the fluctuation in seasonal and yearly temperature changes. The change in the temperature is calculated with respect to baseline climatology, corresponding to the period 1951–1980 (FAO 2023). Figure 4(b) shows the comparison of the seasonal temperature fluctuations over two decades. As shown in the figure, in the December–January–February trimester, Bangladesh experienced a temperature change of +0.66°C during 2000–2009. Notably, the winter months displayed a significant fluctuating trend, with a value of +0.71°C during the decade of 2013–2022. The March–April–May trimester witnessed a more varied pattern, with an average change of +0.096°C in 2000–2009 compared with +0.62°C in 2013–2022. A similar increasing trend in the variability of temperature is also observed for the June–July–August and September–October–November trimesters (Figure 4(b)).
Figure 4

(a) Seasonal and yearly temperature change with time and (b) mean seasonal temperature change over decades in Bangladesh (redrawn using the data from FAO (2023)).

Figure 4

(a) Seasonal and yearly temperature change with time and (b) mean seasonal temperature change over decades in Bangladesh (redrawn using the data from FAO (2023)).

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Temperature and precipitation fluctuations considerably impact crop yield (Biswas & Maniruzzaman 2019), thereby undermining food security and rural livelihoods (Chowdhury & Khan 2015). For example, in the northwestern region of Bangladesh, fluctuations in temperatures, daylight, and CO2 levels resulted in low yield of some rice species: BRRI 28 (16.4%–21.3%), BRRI 29 (12.2%–15.4%), and BRRI 58 (14.8%–22.3%) (Maniruzzaman et al. 2019). Yields of crops such as wheat, potato, and lentils that heavily depend on cool weather are gradually decreasing due to high temperatures in winter (Pender 2010). Thick winter fog also causes potato blight, destruction of flowers of fruits such as mango, and low yield of onion, potato, mustard oil, and chili (Char Campaign Group 2009; Ghani 2009). Heat stress and higher evapotranspiration have also been associated with lower rice, wheat, and potato yields (Biswas et al. 2015).

The documented fluctuations in temperatures (as shown in Figure 4(b)), particularly during critical trimesters for agriculture, underscores the urgency of implementing adaptive strategies in the face of climate change (Uddin et al. 2014). This temperature variability poses a significant challenge to food security, emphasizing the need for resilient agricultural systems and policies that account for the evolving climate dynamics in Bangladesh (IPCC 2021). Despite this temperature variability, the country has witnessed increased agricultural production, particularly in cereals. This phenomenon can be justified by the proactive measures taken in the agricultural sector, including the adoption of climate-resilient crop varieties, improved farming practices, infrastructure development, and government initiatives supporting farmers. These efforts have contributed to sustaining or increasing productivity in the face of changing climate conditions (Abdur Rashid Sarker et al. 2013; Uddin et al. 2014). Continuous adaptation and innovation in agriculture will be crucial to ensuring long-term food security in Bangladesh.

Changing rainfall patterns

In Bangladesh, monsoon rainfall ranges from 1,500 to 5,800 mm along the Indian Ocean and transmits warm, humid, and unstable air, continuing around June to October. As such, runoff, duration of rainy days, and rainfall intensity are anticipated to increase. Mean yearly rainfall could increase by 53.66% by 2050 (World Bank 2020). The fifth IPCC assessment predicted that peak intensity might increase by 5% and 10%, and rainfall rates might increase by 20%–30% (IPCC 2014). Fluctuating rainfall patterns and prolonged dry seasons eventually increase the frequency of floods and drought (Amin et al. 2015). Irregular rainfall patterns disrupt the overall agricultural calendar, leading to significant challenges in crop management and planning. Farmers rely heavily on seasonal rainfall patterns to determine optimal planting and harvesting times. However, erratic precipitation disrupts these traditional practices, resulting in suboptimal crop growth and reduced yields. Changing rainfall and seasonal patterns have been threatening crop yields due to less frequent rain in the rainy season and excessive rainfall in later months (Lönnqvist 2010). Heavy rainfall is linked to low grain quality and undermining of grain storage and preservation facilities Kettlewell et al. (1999). Also, extremely wet soil caused by heavy rainfall makes the use of agricultural machinery difficult. Because of irregular rainfall patterns, farmers in the northwestern part of the country could not determine the suitable time for planting and harvesting, thereby causing harvest yields to lose as much as 17%–18% for rice and 31%–68% for wheat (Karim et al. 1999). By 2050, the country could lose 8%–17% rice yield and 32% wheat yield (World Bank 2020).

Figure 5 illustrates the variability of rainfall patterns across different regions of the country, providing valuable insights into the spatial distribution of precipitation. Developed using data spanning from 1981 to 2020, this figure offers a comprehensive portrayal of the irregularity of rainfall across Bangladesh. By visually representing the spatial variability of rainfall, Figure 5 enhances our understanding of the diverse climatic conditions experienced throughout the country, thereby highlighting its significant implications for food security in Bangladesh for three dominant seasons, i.e., the pre-monsoon (March–May), the monsoon (June–October), and the post-monsoon (November–February). During the pre-monsoon period (March–May), Sylhet Division (northeastern region) consistently records the highest rainfall, with Sylhet City itself experiencing 1,076.1 mm, while Rajshahi Division (northwestern corner of Bangladesh) witnesses the lowest at 242.7 mm. This spatial disparity indicates a pronounced east–west gradient in pre-monsoon precipitation, emphasizing the importance of understanding regional variations for effective water resource management and crop planning.
Figure 5

Seasonal variation of average rainfall for the period of 1981–2020 in Bangladesh (redrawn using the data from Bangladesh Meteorological Department (BMD) reported in Monir et al. (2023)).

Figure 5

Seasonal variation of average rainfall for the period of 1981–2020 in Bangladesh (redrawn using the data from Bangladesh Meteorological Department (BMD) reported in Monir et al. (2023)).

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Moving into the monsoon season (June–October), Teknaf City in the Chittagong Division (southeastern part of Bangladesh) stands out with the highest rainfall at 3,754.5 mm, emphasizing the southern coastal areas' vulnerability to intense monsoons. Conversely, the Rangpur Division (the northernmost division of Bangladesh) exhibits the lowest monsoon rainfall at 1,761.6 mm, reflecting the northern regions' relatively drier conditions. Notably, the cities of Cox's Bazar (southeast coast) and Dhaka (central region of Bangladesh) experience considerable monsoon rainfall at 3,023.7 and 2,290.8 mm, respectively. The post-monsoon period (November–February) shows the differential impact of winter precipitation across the country. The coastal regions, being more exposed to tropical influences, tend to receive higher post-monsoon rainfall, while northern areas witness a decrease. These spatial variations in rainfall necessitate localized adaptation strategies, as different regions face distinct challenges in ensuring crop resilience. Also, the impact of irregular rainfall, as discussed, extends beyond yield losses to encompass broader socioeconomic consequences for farming communities. Crop failures and reduced harvests can exacerbate food insecurity, leading to heightened vulnerability among rural populations. Furthermore, income instability resulting from fluctuating crop yields can perpetuate poverty cycles and hinder economic development in affected regions.

Tropical cyclone

The country's 700 km coastline is the most vulnerable area to a tropical cyclone, especially the south and southeast regions that experience cyclones during the mid-year and early harvesting time, around May–November (Gornall et al. 2010). The most severe cyclone rate was 1.3 per annum with speeds as high as 275 km/h (Chowdhury 2002). The two most severe cyclones were recorded on 29 April 1991 and 15 November 2007 with 225 and 250 km/h wind speeds, respectively, which caused not only loss of lives and properties, but also severe damage to the entire agriculture sector (Tanner et al. 2007). For example, the 2007 Cyclone ‘Sidr’ (Category IV) completely damaged almost 113,000 ha of crops and partially damaged 1,400,000 ha with a total estimated loss of about 1.3 million tons of crops (ECRRP 2010), basic infrastructure such as roads, bridges, and highways, and educational institutions. The cyclone caused the equivalent of nearly USD 2.3 billion worth of damage (Hasan et al. 2020). An IPCC report indicates that tropical cyclones' impacts will become more intense in the upcoming years (IPCC 2007). Since 1970, Bangladesh has faced 36 cyclones, including Sidr, Rashma, Alia, and Bijli, which killed about half a million people and caused immense economic loss (UNDP 2010).

Flash flood

Climate changes are responsible for heavy rainfall that causes flash floods in cultivated land, as nearly 60% of Bangladesh's total land area is located 6 m below sea level (Pender 2010). From April to May, flash floods damage crops and properties in northeastern and western hilly regions (Choudhury et al. 2004). Figure 6 offers a comprehensive overview of flood-affected regions in Bangladesh, presenting clear patterns and anomalies in flood occurrences. The plot reveals an overall increase in the median and spread of affected areas over the decades, pointing to an escalating trend. The early decades (1954–1970) show fluctuations, but the percentage of affected areas remains relatively stable, averaging around 24%–25%. However, the flood of 1974 stands out as an outlier, affecting a remarkable 36% of the area. The subsequent decade, 1981–1990, witnessed another outlier in 1988, with a staggering 61% of the area impacted. The 1998 flood is also notable, affecting 68% of the area. These anomalies contribute to an overall rise in the average percentage of affected areas for their respective decades. The last two decades, 2001–2020, exhibit a fluctuating but generally high percentage of affected areas, with 2018 and 2020 experiencing significant flood events. This variability may be attributed to a combination of natural variability and anthropogenic influences such as changes in land use, river management, or climate change.
Figure 6

Areas affected by floods in Bangladesh, 1954–2020 (redrawn using the data from BWDB (2020)).

Figure 6

Areas affected by floods in Bangladesh, 1954–2020 (redrawn using the data from BWDB (2020)).

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The insights gleaned from Figure 6 shed light on the dynamic nature of flood-affected areas in Bangladesh, revealing a complex interplay of climatic, hydrological, and anthropogenic factors over the decades. As flood events continue to impact vast swathes of cultivated land, particularly during the critical months of April to May in northeastern and western hilly regions, the ramifications extend far beyond mere property damage. These floods exacerbate food insecurity and vulnerability to diseases for the affected population, with an estimated 8,700 ha of residential and agricultural land affected annually, rendering over 200,000 people homeless (IFAD 2013; Alam et al. 2018). Furthermore, projections indicate that a 0.65 m rise in sea level could inundate up to 40% of the southern region's land, compounding the challenges faced by communities already grappling with riverbank erosion and silt deposits (Khan & Islam 2003; World Bank 2013; WFP 2015). The consequences of these environmental upheavals are dire, with estimates suggesting that a 32 cm rise in sea level could decimate aman rice production by 60%–88%, while flash floods pose a significant threat to boro rice cultivation, particularly during the critical harvesting season (CEGIS 2005). As extreme precipitation events become increasingly frequent, exacerbating water levels in streams and leading to widespread floods, the impacts ripple across agricultural landscapes, resulting in soil waterlogging, delayed farming operations, and compromised crop development (Gornall et al. 2010). With large swaths of biodiversity, including cultivated land, forests, and aquatic resources, at risk from inundation due to rising sea levels, the livelihoods of approximately 17 million people reliant on agriculture hang in the balance, underscoring the urgent need for proactive adaptation and resilience-building measures (Hoque et al. 2019; Hasan et al. 2020).

Drought

Drought caused by a prolonged shortage of rainfall and a high evaporation rate (Rahman & Lateh 2016) is globally regarded as the second most-occurring natural calamity after floods (Nagarajan 2009). In Bangladesh, food production, especially in the Barind Tract in the north west regions, is severely impacted by drought (Rahman & Lateh 2016). Cultivating rain-fed crops could be impeded when the drier areas become more parched in the winter season (Hussain 2011). Severe droughts that have negatively impacted food production in Bangladesh are shown in Table 1. Notable among the devastating droughts that happened in 1999 and 2006 in the northwestern part that caused a 25%–30% reduction in average agricultural production (Habiba et al. 2013).

Table 1

Major droughts and their impacts in Bangladesh, 1973–2006 (compiled from FAO 2007; Habiba et al. 2013; Rahman & Lateh 2016)

YearAffected regionImpacts
1973 Northern, southwestern A severe drought that triggered the 1974 famine in the northern region 
1974 Northern, southwestern It caused starvation, shortage of food grain stock, smuggling to neighboring countries, mismanagement, endemic diseases, etc. 
1975 Northern, central, southwestern It affected 47% of agricultural land and over half of the region's population. 
1978 Northwestern, northern, and western Destroyed 42% of the cultivated crops, including 2 million tons of rice. Affected the livelihoods of 44% of local farmers. 
1981 Northeastern, southern, southeastern An acute drought that significantly reduced crop yields 
1982 Almost the whole nation The loss of 53,000 tons of rice was more than twice the damage caused by floods in the same year 
1989 Northwestern, northern, and western Several rivers in the north west region dried up. Dust storms affected Thakurgaon, Nawabganj, Naogaon, and Nilpahamari districts. 
1995 Northwestern, western, and southern Crops, especially rice, jute, and leading cash crops were immensely damaged 
1996 Southwestern, western The most incessant drought led to enormous crop damage, especially rice, jute, wheat, etc. 
1997 Southwestern, central, northeastern Damaged almost 2.6 million ha of paddy fields 
1999 The country One of the worst droughts that affected mostly the eastern region 
2006 Almost the whole nation A reduction of aman rice by about 25%–30% in the northwestern region 
YearAffected regionImpacts
1973 Northern, southwestern A severe drought that triggered the 1974 famine in the northern region 
1974 Northern, southwestern It caused starvation, shortage of food grain stock, smuggling to neighboring countries, mismanagement, endemic diseases, etc. 
1975 Northern, central, southwestern It affected 47% of agricultural land and over half of the region's population. 
1978 Northwestern, northern, and western Destroyed 42% of the cultivated crops, including 2 million tons of rice. Affected the livelihoods of 44% of local farmers. 
1981 Northeastern, southern, southeastern An acute drought that significantly reduced crop yields 
1982 Almost the whole nation The loss of 53,000 tons of rice was more than twice the damage caused by floods in the same year 
1989 Northwestern, northern, and western Several rivers in the north west region dried up. Dust storms affected Thakurgaon, Nawabganj, Naogaon, and Nilpahamari districts. 
1995 Northwestern, western, and southern Crops, especially rice, jute, and leading cash crops were immensely damaged 
1996 Southwestern, western The most incessant drought led to enormous crop damage, especially rice, jute, wheat, etc. 
1997 Southwestern, central, northeastern Damaged almost 2.6 million ha of paddy fields 
1999 The country One of the worst droughts that affected mostly the eastern region 
2006 Almost the whole nation A reduction of aman rice by about 25%–30% in the northwestern region 

Drought indices play a pivotal role in quantifying and monitoring the impact of drought events on various regions. Among the prominent indices, the Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) and the Standardized Precipitation Evapotranspiration Index (SPEI) are widely recognized for their efficacy in assessing meteorological droughts. The SPI focuses solely on precipitation, providing a standardized measure of the deviation of precipitation from the long-term climatic norm. On the other hand, the SPEI incorporates both precipitation and potential evapotranspiration, offering a more comprehensive evaluation of drought conditions by considering temperature influences (Nury & Hasan 2016; Rahman & Lateh 2016). Another relevant index is the Drought Hazard Index, which integrates multiple meteorological variables to assess the overall drought risk in a given area. It provides a comprehensive perspective on drought by considering various climatic factors beyond just precipitation (Shahid & Behrawan 2008).

However, in the context of Bangladesh, SPI has gained notable popularity among researchers and meteorological experts for its simplicity and effectiveness in identifying drought events. Numerous studies in Bangladesh have utilized the SPI to analyze historical drought patterns, assess vulnerability, and guide policy interventions (Afrin et al. 2018; Al-Mamun et al. 2018; Kamruzzaman et al. 2022). This standardized approach enables a consistent evaluation of meteorological drought severity, aiding decision-makers in developing proactive measures to mitigate the impact of water scarcity on agriculture and food security. According to Al-Mamun et al. (2018), the SPI values are classified into different categories to assess the severity of drought. An SPI value ≥0 is considered to indicate no drought, reflecting normal precipitation conditions. While SPI values ranging from <0.00 to −0.99 are categorized as normal drought, suggesting a mild decrease in precipitation, moderate drought is characterized by SPI values falling between −1.00 and −1.49, signaling a more substantial decline in precipitation. The range of −1.50 to −1.99 is designated as severely drought-affected, indicating a critical reduction in precipitation levels. Extremely severe drought conditions are represented by SPI values of −2.00 or less, highlighting an exceptionally significant and prolonged deficit in precipitation.

Figure 7 shows the frequency of extreme, severe, and moderate droughts (depicted by SPI values) across different administrative divisions in Bangladesh. The figure offers valuable insights into the spatial distribution of drought occurrences. In the Barisal Division (south-central region), Bhola stands out with consistent exposure to severe and extreme droughts, while other cities such as Patuakhali and Khepupara also grapple with notable occurrences. In Chittagong Division (southeastern region), various cities such as Cox's Bazar, Teknaf, and Rangamati witness recurrent droughts, emphasizing the vulnerability of the coastal areas. Similarly, Dhaka Division (central region) experiences moderate to severe droughts, with cities such as Faridpur and Tangail facing persistent challenges. Mymensingh Division (central region) experiences occasional droughts. Khulna Division (southwest region), encompassing coastal areas such as Mongla, Chuadanga, and Satkhira, is prone to moderate and severe droughts, reflecting the susceptibility of these regions to climatic extremes. Rajshahi and Rangpur divisions (northwest region) exhibit a similar pattern, with cities like Rajshahi and Rangpur witnessing recurring drought incidents. Sylhet Division (northeastern region), with Sylhet and Srimangal, faces a moderate number of drought occurrences. The spatial distribution emphasizes the varied susceptibility of different regions, influenced by geographical and climatic factors. The identified hotspots align with areas experiencing declining or erratic rainfall patterns, underlining the significance of precipitation in mitigating drought risks. The impact of these droughts on agriculture, water resources, and food security underscores the need for region-specific adaptation strategies and resilient agricultural practices. Studies have highlighted the importance of such strategies in mitigating the adverse effects of drought on crop yields and ensuring food security (FAO 2007; Habiba et al. 2013).
Figure 7

Number of drought years in different geographical locations in Bangladesh during 1980–2015 (redrawn using the data from BWDB (2020) reported in Al-Mamun et al. (2018)).

Figure 7

Number of drought years in different geographical locations in Bangladesh during 1980–2015 (redrawn using the data from BWDB (2020) reported in Al-Mamun et al. (2018)).

Close modal

Indirect impacts of extreme climatic events

Saline water intrusion

In Bangladesh, the increasing sea-level rise also results in salinity intrusion into cropland and freshwater, which poses a great risk to the country's 710 km coastline (Mohal et al. 2006). Between 1948 and 2004, climate change caused a 2 cm sea-level rise along the coast (Quadir 2009). If sea-level rises by 2 cm, the country could lose 16% of its landmass to salinity intrusion along the coastal zone by 2080 (Pender 2010). A study indicated that around 1 million ha of land within the coastal zone has already been degraded by saline water intrusion (Mondal 2010), which is also reaching groundwater (Christian Aid 2007). Within a decade, settlements inhabited by around 6.0 million people have been affected by ‘high saltiness’ (>5 ppt), which might increase to 14.8 million people by 2080 (Mohal & Hossain 2007). It is reported that about 36.5% of land in the Khulna and Barisal divisions is undermined by various soil salinity levels (SRDI 2010). Saltwater intrusion increases soil salinity along the coastline, thereby damaging crops, causing irrigation with saline water, decreasing fish stock, and brackish shrimp farming (Haque et al. 2008; Rasel et al. 2013). Estimates indicate that aman rice yield could decline by between 60% and 88% in the event of a 32 cm sea-level rise (CEGIS 2005). Also, about 40 km of boundary area in the north is facing saline water intrusion and reduced rice yields (Mohal et al. 2006). Annually, saline water intrusion is responsible for the loss of about 659,000 MT of rice (Habibullah et al. 1999), decreasing vegetables, betel nuts, fruits, and coconut tree yields (Lönnqvist 2010). The effect of saltwater intrusion on habitat and freshwater change is exacerbated by sea-level rise, landslides, and low-flow river conditions, leading to low income and migration (Karim 2019). Salinity intrusion significantly affects locals' livelihoods, requiring adaptive actions in production practices and livelihood choices (Ayers et al. 2014).

Insects, pests, and diseases

The modes of pest and disease infestation are expected to change and mutate under climate change. The changing temperature and rainfall conditions significantly increase the incidences of various insects, pests, and diseases in the local ecosystems (IPCC 2007). In Bangladesh, insects, pests, diseases, and the environmental conditions in their favor are negatively impacting crop production (Table 2) and animal husbandry (Salam et al. 2019). Increased winter temperatures reduce the mortality of pests such as aphids and facilitate their far-reaching dispersion (Zhou et al. 1995). Crop resistance to pathogens and disease is also weakened by climate change, especially increased temperature and drought (Gregory et al. 2009). At least 100 crop varieties are infested by 454 different diseases that cause an annual loss of around USD 947,240 (BARI 2006). A study on rice diseases revealed that bacterial leaf blight and nematode are a great threat to rice production throughout the country, and about 4%–14% of rice yield is also lost to bug pests annually (Mondal 2010). Moreover, several other crop yields are also undermined by pests and diseases because of climate change, as shown in Table 2. Global warming has also increased the outbreak of new plant diseases and farm invasions by alien pests (Salam et al. 2019).

Table 2

Estimated yield loss from insects, pests, and diseases for major crops

CropInsect/pestEstimated yield loss (%)Prevalence statusDominant seasonReference
Rice Insects and pests 16.0  Whole year MoA (2002)  
Blast 16.4 (aman)a, 34.7 (boro)a Major Kharif-2, Rabi  
Sheath blight 31.0a Major Kharif-1, 2 Shahjahan et al. (1986)  
False smut 1.8a Emerging Kharif-2, Rabi Sarker et al. (2016)  
 13.5a   Nessa et al. (2017)  
Sheath rot 47.4 Emerging Kharif-2, Rabi Shahjahan et al. (1994)  
Wheat Insects and pests 11.0  Whole year MoA (2002)  
Blast 51.0a Emerging Rabi Islam et al. (2016)  
Leaf spot/blast 15.0a Major Rabi  
Potato Late blight 35.8a Major Rabi Dey et al. (2010)  
Mustard Alternaria blight 60a Major Rabi Meah & Hossain (1988)  
Lentil Stemphylium blight 92.3a Major Rabi Bakr & Ahmed (1992)  
Collar rot 44a Major Rabi Uddin et al. (2008)  
Pulses Insects and pests 25a   MoA (2002)  
Sugarcane Insects and pests 20.0a Major Kharif-1, 2 MoA (2002)  
Jute Insects and pests 15.0a Major Kharif-1 MoA (2002)  
CropInsect/pestEstimated yield loss (%)Prevalence statusDominant seasonReference
Rice Insects and pests 16.0  Whole year MoA (2002)  
Blast 16.4 (aman)a, 34.7 (boro)a Major Kharif-2, Rabi  
Sheath blight 31.0a Major Kharif-1, 2 Shahjahan et al. (1986)  
False smut 1.8a Emerging Kharif-2, Rabi Sarker et al. (2016)  
 13.5a   Nessa et al. (2017)  
Sheath rot 47.4 Emerging Kharif-2, Rabi Shahjahan et al. (1994)  
Wheat Insects and pests 11.0  Whole year MoA (2002)  
Blast 51.0a Emerging Rabi Islam et al. (2016)  
Leaf spot/blast 15.0a Major Rabi  
Potato Late blight 35.8a Major Rabi Dey et al. (2010)  
Mustard Alternaria blight 60a Major Rabi Meah & Hossain (1988)  
Lentil Stemphylium blight 92.3a Major Rabi Bakr & Ahmed (1992)  
Collar rot 44a Major Rabi Uddin et al. (2008)  
Pulses Insects and pests 25a   MoA (2002)  
Sugarcane Insects and pests 20.0a Major Kharif-1, 2 MoA (2002)  
Jute Insects and pests 15.0a Major Kharif-1 MoA (2002)  

aMaximum reported yield loss. All insect pests are estimated to be lost on an annual basis. Kharif-1: March to June, Kharif-2: July to October, Rabi: November to February.

Table 3

Major policy-level initiatives to address climate change and food security

AreaPlan/policy/act (promulgation year)Implementing agency
Environment National Environment Management and Action Plan (1995) Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MEFCC) 
The Bangladesh Environment Conservation Act (1995) 
The Environment Policy (2018) 
Disaster Management National Disaster Management Act (2012) Disaster Management Council 
National Plan for Disaster Management (2010) Disaster Management Bureau, Disaster Management & Relief Division 
Standing Orders on Disaster (2010) 
Climate Change The BCCSAP (2009) MEFCC 
NDCs (2017) 
National Adaptation Program of Action (2009) 
Sectoral Bangladesh Water Act (2013) Ministry of Water Resources 
National Water Management Plan (2001) 
National Water Policy (1999) 
Coastal Zone Policy (2005) 
The National Food Policy (2006) Ministry of Food 
National Agricultural Policy (2018) Ministry of Agriculture 
National Integrated Pest Management Policy (2002) 
National Fisheries Policy (1998) Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries 
National Forestry Policy (1994) MEFCC 
Haor Master Plan (2012) Ministry of Water Resources 
Comprehensive Seventh Five-Year Plan (2016–2020) General Economics Division, Planning Commission 
Perspective Plan of Bangladesh (2010–2021) 
Bangladesh Delta Plan (2015–2100) Planning Commission 
AreaPlan/policy/act (promulgation year)Implementing agency
Environment National Environment Management and Action Plan (1995) Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MEFCC) 
The Bangladesh Environment Conservation Act (1995) 
The Environment Policy (2018) 
Disaster Management National Disaster Management Act (2012) Disaster Management Council 
National Plan for Disaster Management (2010) Disaster Management Bureau, Disaster Management & Relief Division 
Standing Orders on Disaster (2010) 
Climate Change The BCCSAP (2009) MEFCC 
NDCs (2017) 
National Adaptation Program of Action (2009) 
Sectoral Bangladesh Water Act (2013) Ministry of Water Resources 
National Water Management Plan (2001) 
National Water Policy (1999) 
Coastal Zone Policy (2005) 
The National Food Policy (2006) Ministry of Food 
National Agricultural Policy (2018) Ministry of Agriculture 
National Integrated Pest Management Policy (2002) 
National Fisheries Policy (1998) Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries 
National Forestry Policy (1994) MEFCC 
Haor Master Plan (2012) Ministry of Water Resources 
Comprehensive Seventh Five-Year Plan (2016–2020) General Economics Division, Planning Commission 
Perspective Plan of Bangladesh (2010–2021) 
Bangladesh Delta Plan (2015–2100) Planning Commission 

Adaptation refers to managing the negative effects of environmental change to improve resilience and reduce vulnerability (Alam et al. 2017; Shoaib et al. 2022). It is a key element of climate policy, especially in highly susceptible countries such as Bangladesh (Vij et al. 2018). In Bangladesh, initiatives for climate-change adaptation related to agriculture can be classified into those being implemented at national and at community levels.

National-level adaptation initiatives and policies

Climate change mitigation and adaptation in the agricultural sector are the priority of Bangladesh's government, as demonstrated by the existing policies and pledges for climate-resilient agriculture (CIAT–World Bank 2017). The National Adaptation Program Action (NAPA) was established in 2005 with the United Nations Development Program's support to address the negative impacts of climate-change with four cardinal functions: security of food, livelihoods, vitality, and water supply (MoEF 2005; Islam & Nursey-Bray 2017). Also, both the Ministry of Agriculture and the Ministry of Food and Disaster Management implement climate-change adaptation through capacity building at the community level. Similarly, the Ministry of Environment, Forest, and Climate Change initiated a coastal plantation program to minimize the climate change vulnerabilities of coastal communities (Islam & Nursey-Bray 2017).

The Bangladesh Climate Change Strategy and Action Plan (BCCSAP), developed in 2009 with support from donor organizations, aims to mitigate climate-change impacts on the people and their environs (MoEF 2009). This Action Plan is based on six key programs: (i) food security and quality of life; (ii) natural hazard management and mitigation; (iii) strengthening public institutions; (iv) farmer's capacity building; (v) relief and low-carbon improvement; and (vi) research and education (MoEF 2009). Under the umbrella of these two national programs, the government's climate-change adaption initiatives focus on introducing new crop varieties that mature early and are resistant to stress, salt, pests, and diseases and which have effectively adapted to changing climate (Moniruzzaman 2015). The plan has also been building the capacity of farmers and raising awareness on improved irrigation and water management, integrated pest management, research and development on innovative coastal zone management, post- and pre-disaster preparedness, market infrastructure development, value-chain development, and modernization of agricultural techniques and machinery (Karim et al. 2012). As of December 2018, the government-funded Bangladesh Climate Change Trust Fund (BCCTF) has executed 687 climate-adaptation projects through various ministries and non-government organizations (NGOs) (Rai et al. 2014; MoF 2020).

Various adaptation policies and plans have also been promulgated to address climate-change impacts under various implementing agencies (Table 3). For example, the government is supporting 160 million delta people's livelihoods. Also, Vision 2021 and the National Perspective Plan address climate change under general development planning (Ayers et al. 2014). A long-term integrated mega-plan, ‘Bangladesh Delta Plan 2100’, has been prepared to mitigate and adapt to climate-change impact, help eliminate extreme poverty by 2030, and become a developed country beyond 2041 (Chowdhury et al. 2021). The National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan, 2016–2020, has been developed based on the UN Biodiversity Strategic Plan 2016–2020 (MoF 2020). The country is also a signatory to the Paris Climate Agreement and submitted its first Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) in September 2017 (Hasan et al. 2020). The National Planning Commission is also tasked with implementing the Sustainable Development Goals, monitored by a special unit under the Prime Minister's Office (Huq & Khan 2017).

Table 4

Comparison of national agriculture policies focusing on climate adaptation, 1999–2018 (adopted from MoA 1999, 2013, 2018)

Topic199920132018
Area-specific policy Special focus on hill-tracts agriculture Supports adaptation agriculture in adverse climatic zones (e.g., hill tracts, drought-prone, Barind, Char, Haor–Baor, waterlogged, coastal areas) Boost the cultivation of locally grown adaptive crops 
Identify crops suitable for each region through technological and economic parameters, and develop appropriate strategies for cultivating those crops – Develop guidelines on crop types, irrigation, sustainable use of local water sources, soil preservation, and pest management for adverse climatic zones 
Climate change Did not address climate-change issues Promote self-sufficient, sustainable agricultural practices adaptable to climate-change Research on climate-change-tolerant crops, training programs for capacity building, and agricultural management 
Research Research in climate adaptation Research on ‘bottom-up’ local technique Research on salinity and drought-resistant rice, wheat, and jute 
– Encourage research by the public and private sectors Encourage research by the private sector 
– – Research on crop production technology for less emission of GHG 
Irrigation efficiency Building infrastructure to capture runoff water using khals, beels, and small rivers, increasing irrigation systems’ efficiency. Expanding water reservoirs for irrigation and fish production. Tree plantation alongside water reservoirs. Multipurpose use of irrigated water, irrigation efficiency initiatives for adverse climatic zones, and using a force-mode pump instead of a suction-mode pump in water-stressed areas Research and development of new mechanisms to increase irrigation efficiency and the use of the pipeline instead of irrigation canal 
Salinity problems Research and development of salinity-tolerant crops Research and development of irrigation mechanisms to resist salinity intrusion Research on salinity-tolerant crops, capacity development on salinity management, and guidelines for agriculture in salinity-affected zones 
Salinity-tolerant crops Develop salt-tolerant crop varieties and measures to resist salinity Research on salinity-tolerant crops Increase the cultivation of salinity-tolerant crops 
Rainwater harvesting – – Guidelines and actions to increase rainwater harvesting 
Solar energy – Promote the use of renewable energy for effective irrigation Encouraged use of solar energy for irrigation and in households 
Topic199920132018
Area-specific policy Special focus on hill-tracts agriculture Supports adaptation agriculture in adverse climatic zones (e.g., hill tracts, drought-prone, Barind, Char, Haor–Baor, waterlogged, coastal areas) Boost the cultivation of locally grown adaptive crops 
Identify crops suitable for each region through technological and economic parameters, and develop appropriate strategies for cultivating those crops – Develop guidelines on crop types, irrigation, sustainable use of local water sources, soil preservation, and pest management for adverse climatic zones 
Climate change Did not address climate-change issues Promote self-sufficient, sustainable agricultural practices adaptable to climate-change Research on climate-change-tolerant crops, training programs for capacity building, and agricultural management 
Research Research in climate adaptation Research on ‘bottom-up’ local technique Research on salinity and drought-resistant rice, wheat, and jute 
– Encourage research by the public and private sectors Encourage research by the private sector 
– – Research on crop production technology for less emission of GHG 
Irrigation efficiency Building infrastructure to capture runoff water using khals, beels, and small rivers, increasing irrigation systems’ efficiency. Expanding water reservoirs for irrigation and fish production. Tree plantation alongside water reservoirs. Multipurpose use of irrigated water, irrigation efficiency initiatives for adverse climatic zones, and using a force-mode pump instead of a suction-mode pump in water-stressed areas Research and development of new mechanisms to increase irrigation efficiency and the use of the pipeline instead of irrigation canal 
Salinity problems Research and development of salinity-tolerant crops Research and development of irrigation mechanisms to resist salinity intrusion Research on salinity-tolerant crops, capacity development on salinity management, and guidelines for agriculture in salinity-affected zones 
Salinity-tolerant crops Develop salt-tolerant crop varieties and measures to resist salinity Research on salinity-tolerant crops Increase the cultivation of salinity-tolerant crops 
Rainwater harvesting – – Guidelines and actions to increase rainwater harvesting 
Solar energy – Promote the use of renewable energy for effective irrigation Encouraged use of solar energy for irrigation and in households 

Similarly, several research institutes have developed seed varieties adaptable to climate-change. The Bangladesh Institute of Nuclear Agriculture and Bangladesh Rice Research Institute (BRRI) have established salt-tolerant (e.g., BRRI dhan7) and flood-tolerant (e.g., BRRI dhan21) rice species. In addition, the Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute (BARI) has developed several types of pulses, oilseeds, vegetables, and fruits adaptable to coastal areas (Mondal et al. 2009). The Central Bangladesh Bank supports farmers by opening free bank accounts and credit subsidies (Bangladesh Bank 2012). The government has also provided a 30% rebate for importers of agricultural equipment and a 20% rebate on the electricity bills of agro-based trade and irrigation systems (Nadiruzzaman et al. 2019).

Concerning agricultural policies, Table 4 compares the three policies that focus on climate adaptation. The 2018 agricultural policy has updated, relevant policies formulated by different ministries and places them under the agriculture ministry's coordination (Chowdhury et al. 2021). The key difference of this policy from the previous two (1999, 2013) is that it focuses on location-specific programs rather than using generic terms for the whole country. It has specifically mentioned what needs to be done in hilly, coastal, haor and wetlands, Barind, and char land areas. It can be treated as guidelines for both researchers and farmers at the field level for location- and problem-specific problems and solution approaches.

Community-based adaptation programs

Communities that are largely reliant on nature are enormously susceptible to climate-change impacts. In Bangladesh, local farmers implement some coping-techniques to lessen and adapt to climate-change risks in their farming (Islam & Nursey-Bray 2017). In total, 85 different local adaptation techniques exist in the coastal regions where 53 areas are infrastructure-based and 31 are socioeconomic strategies (Mondal et al. 2009). Examples of successful adaptation techniques include rainwater harvesting, ditch and dyke schemes for year-round cultivation, floating agriculture in the waterlogged area, coastal habitat, and wetland restoration (Rahman 2014). These community-based adaptation efforts, which center on local coping-approaches, are more effective than some of the government's centralized and uniform strategies (Chowdhury & Moore 2017).

The FAO also initiated community-based adaptation methods executed by farmers, such as digging ponds and deep tube wells for irrigation, extending ephemeral and drought-tolerant crop varieties, and yard gardening (FAO 2007). Other techniques are a new integrated aquaculture system with rice and livestock in the same field in southern regions and ridging and furrowing methods that have been practiced traditionally for a long time in low-lying waterlogged areas (Aravindakshan et al. 2020). Another integrated method for fish and crop farming, known as Sorjan, is where high beds are used for crop cultivation, and the submerged area is used for fish production (Hossain et al. 2015). In the Hari method, fish are grown in pond water during the rainy season, but the water is drained out later in the dry season to grow boro rice (FAO 2015). Islam et al. (2015) surveyed three coastal villages of Shyamnagar Upazilla. They found that the local adaptation choices are effective in the following ways: (i) control of saline water interruption into agrarian land, (ii) beachfront afforestation, (iii) development of salt-tolerant crops, (iv) homestead planting, and (v) wage improvement. Similarly, mixed cropping, floating gardens, duck-raising, confine aquaculture, wave assurance dividers, waterway recovery, and embankment are climate-adaptation measures identified in the low-lying ranges of the northeast (Anik & Khan 2012). In flood-prone areas, ‘floating agriculture’ has been a climate-adaptive native cultivation method for over 100 years (Irfanullah 2009; Chowdhury & Moore 2017).

Other essential strategies for adapting to climate change to improve food security include protecting land and water resources, developing and adopting diverse climate-resilient crop varieties, upgrading irrigation systems, and enhancing international food trade (Hanjra & Qureshi 2010). Another adaptation measure is supplementing the existing dietary habit of overreliance on rice with crops less susceptible to climate-change impacts (Moniruzzaman 2015). The factors that influence whether farmers employ adaptation practices include gender, age, education of family heads, household wealth, farm size, residency status, access to credit, and the conviction to implement adaptation strategies (Sarker et al. 2013). Thus, climate-change adaptation for food security can only be achieved by simultaneously balancing the physical and social factors (Ayers et al. 2014).

Enhancing food security through stakeholder collaboration

Effective collaboration among stakeholders such as the communities, governments, the private sector, NGOs, researchers, and climate experts is also needed for adequate adaptation to climate-change impacts (Islam & Nursey-Bray 2017; Hasan et al. 2018). In Bangladesh, the government has actively engaged multiple stakeholders, including the communities, international organizations, and local NGOs, in several projects such as Community-Based Adaptation to Climate Change through Coastal Afforestation and the Climate Resilient Participatory Afforestation and Reforestation Project (Chow et al. 2019). The tidal river management program also promotes stakeholder collaboration in information collection and dissemination, awareness development, publishing, mobilization, advocacy, demonstration, negotiation, training, and participatory planning related to climate-change adaptation (Haque et al. 2015). In the ‘char’ areas, collaborative initiatives have increased food security through various programs, including (i) climate-change awareness campaigns, (ii) provision of soft loans, (iii) dissemination of new cropping techniques, (iv) introduction of different saving schemes, and (v) tailor-made training on various alternative livelihood options (Islam et al. 2018).

In 2005, the CARE Bangladesh NGO initiated a partnership-based project named ‘Reducing Vulnerability to Climate Change’. Here individual households receive financial support and training in alternative livelihood options such as crab fattening, livestock and poultry rearing, fish farming, homestead gardens, floating gardens, water-filtering systems, and mat making (Lopa & Ahmad 2016). Another NGO called Shushilan and Uttaran contributed to building a 27 km embankment in the southern part of the country, incorporating local saline water intrusion in the national water policy, and implementing community-oriented local initiatives such as an eco-club, student water forum, water committee, and local level workshops to build awareness among the stakeholders regarding the benefits of protecting the embankment (Lopa & Ahmad 2016). The Centre for Coastal Environmental Conservation (CCEC) is another NGO that planted around 100,000 saplings in collaboration with local communities and the government to protect the southern coastal area from cyclones and tidal surges. A mangrove protection society responsible for planting, regenerating, and protecting coastal mangrove forests has also been formed (Lopa & Ahmad 2016).

Other NGOs such as Building Resources Across Communities (BRAC), World Vision, Caritas, Sangstha, Gono Shahajjo, Society for Social Service (SSS), NGO Forum, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), World Food Programme (WFP), and International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) are working across the country to reduce climate vulnerability and ensure better food security. They offer financial support at a reasonable interest rate to farmers and technical training on climate-responsive farming, livestock and poultry rearing, and fisheries. For example, BRAC and SSS offer post-harvest services to ensure better marketing and selling of agro-products (Akhi et al. 2015). The BRAC fisheries program trained 138,090 farmers on pond aquaculture and disbursed USD 10 million in loans to 109,002 farmers for pond-fish culture between 1998 and 2015 (BRAC 2016). Similarly, the SSS supports fish farmers through micro-credits, technical training, monitoring, and marketing (Akhi et al. 2015). These stakeholder collaborations at every stage of the adaptation strategies focusing on the most vulnerable stakeholders, such as poor local farmers, make the strategies successful (Wheeler et al. 2013; Ahmed & Roy 2015).

Management strategies for food security

Implementing effective management strategies for food security in Bangladesh is imperative to address the challenges posed by climate-change and ensure a sustainable and resilient agro-based economy. Agroecological systems (Altieri et al. 2015), integrated crop–livestock approaches (Nie et al. 2016), homestead farming, and innovative irrigation technologies such as the alternate wet and dry method are key components of these strategies. Homestead farming is a prevalent and effective farming practice among the haor (Old Brahmaputra Floodplain and Sylhet Basin) people, with 43.2% of households engaging in it (Rahaman et al. 2018). These approaches, supported by local genetic diversity and sustainable land-use practices, contribute to building resilience against extreme climate events and promoting a stable supply of food, particularly in vulnerable regions such as the haor. Additionally, the mentioned strategies can help prevent outbreaks of pests and diseases, ultimately leading to increased crop yield without compromising biodiversity. Promoting and preserving biological diversity, including soil microorganisms, can enhance crop productivity and maintain the ecological balance (Schmitz et al. 2015; Garibaldi et al. 2017). Enhancing the diversification of various aspects of the food system is crucial for improving performance and efficiency, which can lead to greater resilience and decreased risks (Awodoyin et al. 2015; Makate et al. 2016).

Management strategies may also be considered in the domains of food transport and storage, trading, processing, and packaging, which are crucial elements of the food security system. Based on a recent study conducted in Bangladesh by Kabir et al. (2022), it was shown that farmers are more dependent on the products they cultivate when the distance to the district market is greater. Conversely, this situation changes when farmers have increased access to the market. The market's accessibility allows farmers to acquire crops that they do not cultivate, leading to the consumption of a wide variety of meals. In addition, the expenses associated with transportation become significant when the market is challenging to reach (Kabir et al. 2022). Enhancing infrastructure and logistics for transport and storage in Bangladesh would greatly improve adaptation to climate-change and promote food and nutrition security. Market access has been found to have a significant impact on the consumption and sale of a product, as indicated by the study. The variable of market access exhibited a more significant influence on dietary diversity compared with diversified agricultural production, therefore emphasizing its importance (Sibhatu et al. 2015).

Multiple government ministries in Bangladesh are also collaborating to ensure the various aspects of food and nutrition security. The primary policies that serve as guiding principles are the National Food Policy 2006, National Women Development Policy 2011, National Nutrition Policy 2015, The Second National Plan of Action for Nutrition (NPAN-2), National Strategy for Adolescent Health 2016, National Food and Nutrition Security Policy 2019 (draft), and National Agriculture Extension Policy 2020. The aforementioned policies have been formulated to guarantee the rights of individuals and availability to food and nutrition and to execute the policies of different government departments in the implementation of food assistance initiatives and social-safety-net programs (M. T. Rahman et al. 2022). One of the programs is the Vulnerable Group Feeding Program. Under this program, the government offers biannual assistance to a vulnerable demographic group, providing them with rice and occasionally financial aid. Another program is the Vulnerable Group Development Program, which exclusively benefits female members of impoverished families, providing them with food aid, financial assistance, as well as training in hygiene and nutrition. Another initiative is the Employment Generation Program for the Poorest (EGPP), which requires impoverished workers to fulfill a specific workload to receive monetary compensation. Typically, EGPP prioritizes two seasons each year that have lower opportunities for daily laborers to find work. Pregnant and lactating mothers are the primary recipients of the Maternity Allowances Program, which provides them with food, financial assistance, and training resources. The implementation of test relief and food for work programs aims to provide food assistance to vulnerable populations. The Gratuitous Relief (GR) is regarded as one of the most exemplary initiatives implemented by the government. Through this program, beneficiaries are provided with both food and financial assistance in the event of food scarcity or a disaster. During the recent Covid-19 pandemic, the government provided multiple rounds of GR to the vulnerable population. An advantage of GR is its flexibility in selecting beneficiaries. The program allows responsible individuals to include any person from the beneficiary list as needed. The aforementioned programs are directly associated with food aid.

Continual research and development efforts are imperative to fortify food security in Bangladesh. Firstly, advancements in crop breeding and the introduction of climate-resilient varieties could play a pivotal role (Leal Filho et al. 2022). Collaborative initiatives between research institutions, farmers, and government agencies should prioritize developing crops that can withstand changing climatic conditions and resist pests or diseases. Secondly, innovations in water management systems, including efficient irrigation techniques and rainwater harvesting, are essential. Sustainable agricultural practices, such as precision farming and organic cultivation, should be explored and promoted to ensure long-term soil health and productivity. Precision agriculture, involving the use of technology for optimized resource utilization, can enhance yield while minimizing environmental impact. Thirdly, the integration of data-driven technologies and artificial intelligence in agriculture can provide valuable insights for decision-makers. Predictive models and early warning systems based on weather patterns and climate forecasts can help farmers anticipate challenges, adapt strategies, and optimize resource allocation. Finally, securing the future of food in Bangladesh requires a comprehensive approach that combines scientific innovation, sustainable practices, and robust policy frameworks. As climate-change continues to pose challenges, a collective commitment to research and development will pave the way for a resilient and food-secure Bangladesh, safeguarding the well-being of its population.

Our review identifies significant climate-change challenges facing Bangladesh, particularly regarding the security and sustainability of its fragile food system. Elevated temperature fluctuations and unpredictable rainfall patterns present notable hurdles in managing and strategizing crop cultivation. Furthermore, the escalation of floods attributed to intense rainfall and rising sea-level compounds food insecurity in vulnerable regions. Additionally, certain areas experience moderate to severe drought conditions, further complicating agricultural practices. These challenges, compounded by sea-level rise, saltwater intrusion, pests, and diseases, significantly endanger the country's coastline and vital infrastructure. Consequently, low crop-yields, increasing food prices, malnutrition, starvation, and migration are observed outcomes, disproportionately affecting more than half of the rural population reliant on agriculture for their livelihoods. Poverty, poor access to health facilities, and low education further exacerbate these impacts. Without adequate adaptation measures, the impacts of climate-change will continue to undermine food security and exacerbate the hardships faced by local farmers in the country. Fortunately, the government and other stakeholders have initiated several programs and projects aimed at reducing the impacts of climate-change on food system sustainability. Local adaptation efforts are increasingly building the resilience of local farmers to adapt to expanding climate risks (IPCC 2014; Alam et al. 2018). These efforts underline the importance of collaborative action and the implementation of targeted adaptation strategies to address the complex challenges posed by climate-change to food security in Bangladesh.

However, there are several challenges to the existing adaptation efforts, including a lack of subsidies, inadequate technical know-how on climate-change issues, and institutional limitations (Masud et al. 2017). Other challenges are limited access to climate databases and scientific studies, and proper irrigation facilities (Alauddin & Sarker 2014). The NGOs are also working on a very small scale that needs to be scaled up nationwide through the government, private sector, and international communities, including donor agencies. Therefore, the government should develop appropriate programs to improve and expand the local initiatives to enhance their adaptation capacity and lessen the vulnerability to effects of climate-change on the food system and security. Future research should investigate how the government's climate-change adaptation initiatives can be sustainable without relying on donors to foster long-time food security in the country.

We would like to thank King Faisal University (KFU) and King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals (KFUPM), Saudi Arabia for their support.

This research was funded by the Deanship of Scientific Research at King Faisal University (KFU), Al-Ahsa 31982, Saudi Arabia, through Project No. GRANT 5595.

Syed Masiur Rahman and Muhammad Muhitur Rahman contributed to conceptualization; Md Monirul Islam Chowdhury, Syed Maisur Rahman, and Md Iqram Uddin contributed to methodology; Md Iqram Uddin and Md Arif Hasan participated in formal analysis; Syed Masiur Rahman and Muhammad Muhitur Rahman were involved in resource preparation; Muhammad Muhitur Rahman, Md Monirul Islam Chowdhury, Syed Masiur Rahman, Md Iqram Uddin, Ismaila Rimi Abubakar, and Yusuf A. Aina wrote the original draft; Muhammad Muhitur Rahman, Md Monirul Islam Chowdhury, Syed Masiur Rahman, Md Iqram Uddin, Ismaila Rimi Abubakar, Yusuf A. Aina, and Mohammad Shahedur Rahman wrote the original draft and reviewed and edited the manuscript; Syed Masiur Rahman and Muhammad Muhitur Rahman contributed to project administration; Muhammad Muhitur Rahman contributed to funding acquisition. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

All relevant data are included in the paper or its Supplementary Information.

The authors declare there is no conflict.

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