Identifying challenging barriers to farmers' adaptation to climate change in Bo district, Sierra Leone: A review

Humans’ most fundamental economic activity is food production, yet systems supporting this activity are already under stress from human activity, which will be exacerbated by anthropogenic climate change (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC 2007, 2013)). Globally, it has become essential to adapt to the inevitable effects of climate change (IPCC 2014). However, numerous barriers prevent the planning and implementation of adaptation that practitioners, politicians, and scientists encounter and report on (Gagnon-Lebrun & Agrawala 2007; Tompkins et al. 2010; Eisenack et al. 2014; IPCC 2014). The ‘adaptation deficit’ is growing since adaption implementation cannot keep up with the constantly growing need. To find potential ways to overcome these barriers (Gómez-Gómez et al. 2022), it is crucial to identify and study the barriers to adaptation. This perspective evaluates existing information and presents a research agenda to pinpoint, clarify, and remove adaptation-related barriers (Schipper & Burton 2009; Eisenack et al. 2014).

Sierra Leone, which lies in West Africa, is a nation that is extremely vulnerable to the effects of climate change (IPCC 2014, 2022). A significant proportion of the country's population relies on the agricultural sector, which is the nation's economic backbone, for their livelihood (GoSL-MAFFS 2015; World Bank-SL 2015), yet it has many difficulties in adjusting to the changing environment, employing 60% of the labor force, and contributing only 35% to the gross domestic product (GDP). Farmers in Sierra Leone have several challenges that make it difficult for them to adjust to changing conditions as temperatures rise, severe weather events become more common, and rainfall patterns grow unpredictable (Howden et al. 2007; FitzGerald et al. 2021). Many farmers in Sierra Leone are extremely poor, producing at or below subsistence levels, and they are subject to several barriers that harm agricultural development, including droughts, soil acidity, nutrient-depleted and degraded soils, etc. The disparity between contribution to GDP and share of the population is a major cause of this (ECOWAS, Economic Community of West African States 2008; World Bank-SL 2015; GoSL-NAPA, Government of Sierra Leone-National Adaptation Plan 2021).

Adaptation has become increasingly recognized as a crucial response strategy in recent years, particularly in susceptible nations. It is now obvious that some effects cannot be avoided in the near to medium future. The importance of adaptation measures for vulnerable groups cannot be overstated, as failing to do so may result in ‘significant deprivation, social disruption, population displacement, and even morbidity and mortality’ (Alam et al. 2013). Thus, dealing with the adverse effects of climate change is known as adaptation, and it may ultimately increase resilience or reduce vulnerability to climate change (Adger et al. 2007). A nation's climate change adaptation strategies, according to UNDP (2005), are a comprehensive set of measures to deal with the negative effects of climate change. Adaptation measures are crucial for the agricultural sectors in Bo District given the current climate change scenario. Nonetheless, Alam et al. (2013) discovered that the majority of farmers in Sierra Leone's Bo district are not as knowledgeable about issues related to climate change. These farmers often have little capacity for adaptation and are subject to various climate hazards where the district has experienced changes in temperature and rainfall distribution as well as shifts in climatic patterns in recent decades. These modifications have caused disruptions in traditional farming methods and make it more challenging for farmers to accurately predict and schedule growth seasons (Alam et al. 2013).

However, there are barriers to climate change adaptation in Bo District due to economic, institutional, policy, knowledge, and information, as well as social and cultural, challenges surrounding climate change (UNDP 2005; Adger et al. 2007; Gifford 2011; Jones & Boyd 2011). These barriers interact with socioeconomic (poverty, education, income, etc.) and environmental factors (unsustainable farming practices such as inadequate soil conservation and excessive use of agrochemicals) (Masud et al. 2017), making them crucial when it comes to climate change adaptation strategies; thus, leading to depletion of soil nutrients, and negatively impacting agricultural activities and productivity within the district. Finding out how farmers think and feel, as well as what barriers they face to adaptation and how best to help them minimize the negative effects of climate change on the economy of Bo District, is becoming more and more important through thorough analysis of the body of existing research and empirical evidence. Thus, this review aims to investigate and evaluate the challenging barriers to climate change adaptation plans in Bo District, Sierra Leone. This study helps gauge how strongly farmers feel about concerns related to climate change and helps determine what needs to be done to reduce the negative effects of climate change.

In recent years, climate change adaptation has become a top priority for science and policy, with scholars increasingly focusing on the ‘adaptation deficit’ phenomenon (Adger et al. 2007; Masud et al. 2017; Moser et al. 2019). This deficit is evident in both developing (Sierra Leone, Nigeria, Egypt, Uganda, etc.) and developed countries such as the United States, with growing losses from extreme events, continuous development in high-hazard areas, and inadequate preparedness for disasters (Ekstrom & Moser 2014; Moser et al. 2019). Some academics have focused on the existence and nature of barriers to adaptation and society's capacity to overcome them to partially explain this deficit. However, most research, on adaptation barriers according to Ekstrom and Moser is unsystematic, focusing on specific limitations and studies of individual projects or places. This has led to a better understanding of the effects and significance of barriers and the fact that many adaptations are impeded by them, even in well-resourced organizations. With reference to Ekstrom & Moser (2014), a theory-driven framework for methodically assessing adaptation barriers has been developed through a meta-analysis of available research.

Several studies have been conducted to explore the barriers associated with climate change adaptation by farmers; for instance, Ekstrom & Moser (2014), in their literature from the United States and, in particular, California, consistently identify six types of barriers; institutional/governance/legal, attitudinal, financial/resources, information/uncertainty, staffing capacity, and political barriers (Ekstrom & Moser 2014). The review discovered that challenges related to the high cost of agricultural inputs, unpredictable weather patterns, a lack of water resources, a lack of accurate weather information, and insufficient credit options and agricultural subsidies prevent farmers in Sierra Leone's Bo District from adapting to climate change. The results are similar to those of Jones & Boyd (2011), Moser & Ekstrom (2010), Masud et al. (2017), and Birkmann & Teichman (2010) in different nations. Given that approximately three-quarters of the publications in our systematic literature review evaluated had financial or resource, institutional/policy, knowledge/information, and sociocultural barriers, this gives an affirmation to the findings of our study conducted in Bo district. A Dutch research team subsequently and independently analyzed some of the same and new literature, coming up with nearly identical findings (Biesbroek et al. 2013). The findings suggest seven barrier clusters that integrate the barriers found in the previously described literature streams. They interpreted the survey data in a way that transcends the impact of individual barriers by grouping the barriers. The clusters consist of the following: conflicting timelines; uncertain institutional, strategic, and substantive aspects; institutional voids and crowded spaces; fragmentation; insufficient awareness and communication; motivations and readiness to take action; and resources.

Developing strategies for adaptation is essential to combating the negative effects of climate change. Due to their incapacity to adjust to the changing environment, farmers may face severe hardships like illness, poverty, social disruption, and even death (Masud et al. 2017; Mubaya & Mafongoya 2017). Farmers can use the adaptation techniques as a backbone for climate change adaptation and sustainable agriculture, supporting government efforts to provide effective policies and programs for the agricultural sector. Appropriate adaptation methods are required to combat the vulnerability caused by climate change (Adger et al. 2007).

The Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) defines the barriers as ‘conditions or factors that render adaptation ineffective as a response to climate change and are largely insurmountable’ (Adger et al. 2007). The use of climate change adaptation measures faces significant challenges. Many factors, including institutional, technological, financial, social, and environmental barriers to adaptation, make it more difficult for farmers to adapt to climate change in the context of agriculture. These elements contribute to the explanation of the discrepancy between the widely acknowledged need for adaptation and the overall lack of action (Patt & Schr€oter 2008; Amundsen et al. 2010; Wolf et al. 2010). Nonetheless, farmers still have a poor awareness of these barriers (Gifford et al. 2011). However, a deeper comprehension of the barriers is necessary for farmers to be able to adapt to climate change, as these hindrances limit the process of adaptation and reduce their adaptive ability (Masud et al. 2017). To reduce the negative consequences of climate change (Masud et al. 2017), this understanding of barriers will help with better reinforcement and sustainable agriculture methods. It is possible that an obvious awareness of issues surrounding climate change could foster positive attitudes toward mitigating its adverse effects (Masud et al. 2017). On the other hand, through adaptation strategies, the negative consequences of climate change can be minimized. According to some research (Masud et al. 2017), understanding is positively correlated with attitudes. Farmers’ views and attitudes toward climate change are crucial to putting into practice appropriate strategies against barriers to adaptation.

The present study used a comprehensive literature review approach to examine the formidable barriers encountered by farmers in Bo District, Sierra Leone as they strive to adjust to the impacts of climate change. The study involves four main stages: identifying the problem, assessing the data, evaluating the data, and analyzing the results. Advanced research databases, including Web of Science, Google Scholar, Scopus, and grey literature sites, were assessed. The rationale for employing a comprehensive literature review approach in this study stems from the limited amount of research conducted on the challenging barriers faced by farmers in the study region of Bo District, Sierra Leone in adapting to climate change. This literature review offers a thorough summary of previous studies, combines their results, and presents overall conclusions on the particular topic being studied.

Ensuring trustworthiness in the literature review approach requires applying the same level of accuracy and credibility as expected in the actual study. The literature review method should lead to an accurate and balanced representation of the research conducted on the topic of the study. In this study, trustworthiness was ensured through triangulation using multiple information sources, peer review, and assessing the credibility of sources and publishers, as outlined by Shenton (2004). Utilizing the triangulation technique enhances the validity of qualitative research, making it a suitable method for this study.

The criteria for sources included in the present study also enhance the credibility of the study and its findings. This study limited the inclusion based on publication date and authority. Only studies published in the 21st century were included to strike a balance between excluding outdated research and addressing the lack of literature on the topic. Publication authority was limited to peer-reviewed journal articles, conference publications, and sources like the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), and the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP), among others. Publications were further screened based on their titles, abstracts, and keyword evidence. After screening the data, it became clear that there are gaps in climate change adaptation scenarios and barriers in Bo District, Sierra Leone. This highlights specific areas that should be the focus of future research, particularly in terms of modeling, predictions, policy, and stakeholder analysis.

Analyzing barriers requires the use of conceptual frameworks, which are analytical tools that researchers employ to make connections between conceptual ideas and direct empirical investigation (Elum et al. 2017). It is projected that climate change will have a significant impact on Africa's agricultural output (FAO, Food and Agricultural Organization 2006; Somda et al. 2017). The agricultural sector is crucial for food security (Alam et al. 2016; Elum et al. 2017), especially for rural communities that rely on it for their livelihood. Climate change vulnerability affects a system's ability to adapt, with flood hazards increasing threat awareness and demand for insurance. Access to credit and insurance is essential for independent adaptation, with studies proving that farmers have access to various (Reside et al. 2018; Rammig et al. 2020) adaptive strategies. The scholarly literature on coping with the effects of climate change, both now and in the future, has grown significantly since the turn of the century (Biesbroek et al. 2013). Understanding the fundamental concepts and principles underlying how to deal with the impacts of climate change is necessary to conceptualize adaptation to it. Its goal is to create methods and tactics that can successfully lessen the dangers and vulnerabilities brought on by climate change while assisting communities and ecosystems in adjusting to the changing climate (Biesbroek et al. 2013; Klein et al. 2014). It is crucial to first define adaptation in this context to comprehend adaption barriers. The term ‘adaptation’ is the process of changing one's behavior, attitudes, or techniques (Gorddard et al. 2016), to better fit the current environment in response to new conditions or situations. It requires adaptability, tenacity, and readiness for change (Carrico et al. 2015).

In general, conceptualizing climate change adaptation entails comprehending the complexity of climate change impacts, susceptibilities, and adaptive ability, as well as coming up with tactics that can boost resilience and encourage sustainable development in the aspect of a changing climate.

Sierra Leone has a wide variety of climates, ranging from savannah areas to tropical rainforests. However, in the last few decades, the nation has experienced modifications to its climate patterns, such as increased temperatures and variations in the distribution of rainfall (GoSL-NAPA, Government of Sierra Leone-National Adaptation Plan 2021). The implementation of Sierra Leone's Medium-Term National Development Plan 2019–2023 was seriously threatened by climate change, which also has detrimental effects on the country's economic growth. The economy of the nation is heavily reliant on natural resources and delicate ecosystems; irregular rainfall patterns, rising temperatures, and seasonal and flash floods, as well as low crop yields, water shortages, and mudslides, are already plaguing the country and will continue to have a negative influence on vulnerable communities’ assets and sustainable means of livelihood. Throughout the years, the Sierra Leonean government has taken necessary measures to adapt to climate change and has worked to minimize the possibility of further harm (GoSL-NAPA, Government of Sierra Leone-National Adaptation Plan 2021). The process of adapting to climate change in Sierra Leone is complicated and involves a variety of barriers that hinder the nation's ability to withstand changes in the environment, even with the efforts and actions that have been taken (Davidson 2016; Ng'ang'a et al. 2016). By adaptation barriers, we mean a collection of circumstances that could prevent the use of particular adaptations (Jones & Boyd 2011; Adger et al. 2013a). The challenges to climate change adaptation in Sierra Leone are numerous and intricate, ranging from institutional weaknesses impeding policy implementation to knowledge gaps restricting informed decision-making to economic limitations impeding investment in sustainable infrastructure. Gender differences, traditional beliefs, and community dynamics all impact adaptive ability across different sectors, adding to the landscape's complexity. Social and cultural issues also play a role. The creation and application of successful adaptation techniques the Sierra Leone has, however, been hampered by myriad barriers:

• (a) Limited awareness and understanding: Lack of awareness and understanding of climate change and its possible impacts is one of the main obstacles (GoSL-NAPA, Government of Sierra Leone-National Adaptation Plan 2021; IPCC 2022). Prioritizing and putting adaptation strategies into action can be difficult in many communities, especially those in rural areas where there may be little access to knowledge and resources to comprehend the complexity of climate change (Moser & Ekstrom 2010; Nalau 2021).

• (b) Limited institutional capacity: Sierra Leone has institutional capacity issues related to climate change adaptation (GoSL-MAFFS 2015; GoSL-NAPA, Government of Sierra Leone-National Adaptation Plan 2021). This includes a lack of money, weak governance, and little technical expertise (World Bank-SL 2015). The creation and execution of adaptation policies, plans, and projects are hampered by a lack of capacity.

• (c) Poverty and socioeconomic vulnerabilities: With a sizable portion of the citizens living in poverty, Sierra Leone is one of the poorest countries in the world (GoSL-MAFFS 2015; World Bank-SL 2015). Vulnerabilities to the impacts of climate change are increased by poverty and a lack of development (IPCC 2014; Prakash & Bernauer 2020). Communities find it challenging to adjust to changing climatic circumstances due to a lack of infrastructure and resources, which increases risks and vulnerabilities (Davidson 2016).

• (d) Limited access to financial resources: For adaption measures like infrastructure upgrades, capacity-building, and technology transfer to be put into action, adequate money is essential (IPCC 2014; GoSL-NAPA, Government of Sierra Leone-National Adaptation Plan 2021). Accessing financial aid from both domestic and foreign sources, though, is difficult for Sierra Leone (World Bank-SL 2015). The nation's inability to undertake thorough adaptation plans is hampered by its lack of financial resources (IPCC 2013; GoSL-MAFFS 2015). Table 1 presents a summary of barriers to climate change adaptation in Sierra Leone.

• (e) Lack of coordination and collaboration: Coordination and cooperation between numerous stakeholders, such as government entities, civil society organizations, and communities, are essential for effective climate change adaptation (Ng'ang'a et al. 2016; GoSL-NAPA, Government of Sierra Leone-National Adaptation Plan 2021). However, Sierra Leone frequently struggles to integrate efforts across many sectors and levels of administration, which results in dispersed and poorly planned adaptation measures (Chalabi & Kovats 2014).

• (f) Weak policies and legal frameworks: The policy and legal structures in Sierra Leone for adapting to climate change may be disjointed or insufficient. The creation and execution of cohesive adaptation plans may be hampered as a result (GoSL-NAPA, Government of Sierra Leone-National Adaptation Plan 2021). To provide clear guidelines, laws, and incentives for climate change adaptation, policy and legal frameworks must be strengthened (Groot et al. 2015).

• (g) Environmental degradation and land use pressures: Sierra Leone faces significant challenges related to land degradation, deforestation, and unsustainable land use practices (Karlen & Rice 2015), and these problems are made worse by climate change (Canadell et al. 2021; EPA-SL 2022). These problems further weaken ecological and community resilience, making it more challenging to respond to the impacts of climate change (GoSL-NAPA, Government of Sierra Leone-National Adaptation Plan 2021; Piguet 2021). The degradation of natural resources exacerbates the vulnerability of livelihoods, making it even more difficult to adjust to climate change impacts (Miles et al. 2021).

• (h) Political stability, governance, and conflicts: Political unrest and conflicts in Sierra Leone's past had a negative social and economic influence on the country (GoSL-NAPA, Government of Sierra Leone-National Adaptation Plan 2021). Political instability and weak governance are barriers that impede climate change adaptation efforts. Instability disrupts long-term planning and implementation of adaptation initiatives (Biesbroek et al. 2013), leading to a lack of policy coherence. Resources have been diverted, governance systems have been upset, and long-term planning and the execution of adaption measures have all been hampered by these conflicts (World Bank-SL 2015; GoSL-NAPA, Government of Sierra Leone-National Adaptation Plan 2021). Effective governance structures are essential for the allocation of resources, formulation of regulations, and implementation of adaptation strategies. With conflict and without political stability and good governance, climate change adaptation is hampered (IPCC 2012).

A vast list of often-reported barriers (Adger et al. 2008; Jones & Boyd 2011; Biesbroek et al. 2013; Eisenack et al. 2014) has been developed by the rising body of case studies and theoretical studies. There have been several attempts to classify these barriers. For instance, Ekstrom & Moser (2014) describe the institutional, attitudinal, financial, and political barriers as the four categories of barriers that are most frequently faced in the local urban area. Seven barrier categories are listed by Biesbroek et al. (2013): (1) conflicting timelines; (2) substantive, strategic, and institutional uncertainty; (3) institutional crowdedness and institutional void; (4) institutional fragmentation; (5) lack of awareness and communication; (6) motives and willingness to act; and (7) lack of resources. The majority of these barrier types do not pertain specifically to the governance of climate adaptation at this abstract level. Similar barriers are encountered by other management, policy, and change processes. Many of the same challenges that come with managing other complicated problems also apply to the governance of adaptation.

Small-scale farms are more severely impacted by climate change than large-scale farms, claims Morton (2007). According to Esham & Garforth (2013) and Masud et al. (2017), climate change may significantly lower agricultural productivity, which would have an impact on rural per capita income and poverty levels. For instance, a drop in global rice production brought on by climate change increased the amount of poverty among farmers (Redfern et al. 2012). Numerous negative impacts of climate change are seen on agricultural output and farmers’ socioeconomic circumstances. The following are the direct effects of climate change on agriculture in Bo District, Sierra Leone: (i) a decline in agricultural productivity; (ii) an increase in food insecurity; (iii) an increase in air and water temperatures; (iv) altered geographic distribution and crop boundaries as a result of changes in rainfall, temperature, cloudiness, and increased carbon dioxide absorptions (Leal Filho et al. 2018; GoSL-NAPA, Government of Sierra Leone-National Adaptation Plan 2021). Therefore, for the agricultural sector to minimize the unanticipated impacts of climate change, adaptation is deemed essential.

A crucial requirement for adaptation is farmers’ awareness of climate change. Alam et al. (2017) revealed that a great proportion of Bo District farmers are falling behind in their grasp of challenges connected to climate change. In general, farmers are exposed to these climatic risks and have a limited potential for adaptation (Alam et al. 2017). However, a thorough awareness of climate change is required for farmers to implement appropriate adaptation approaches and practices (Masud et al. 2017; Somda et al. 2017). To identify barriers and the best adaptation measures, it is crucial to comprehend the context of climate change susceptibility. The ability of farmers to adjust their operations is essential if they are to meet the escalating demands of market forces, technological improvements, and climate change. However, farmers frequently encounter a variety of barriers that prevent them from efficiently adapting. To highlight their importance in the agricultural industry, this paper tries to identify and classify the main adaptation challenges that farmers face in Bo District, Sierra Leone.

The research supporting the notion that resources play an important part in climate change adaptation gives rise to this category of barriers. The term ‘economic barriers’ describes the financial and resource limitations that prevent farmers from investing in agricultural practices that are climate-resilient (Alam et al. 2016). These barriers consist of things like limited access to credit facilities, expensive input costs, unstable markets, and poor infrastructure (Tangonyire & Akuriba 2022). Due to their severe effects, farmers in Bo District are unable to purchase essential supplies, implement sustainable farming practices, or bear the financial risks connected with the effects of climate change. Insufficient financial resources have made it difficult for farmers in Bo District to put adaptation plans into place and strengthen their resistance to changing conditions (Alam et al. 2016). According to our findings, one of the primary barriers to farmers’ ability to adapt to climate change is economic barriers. This is consistent with previous research that highlights the financial barriers farmers face when putting adaptive techniques into practice. Research has indicated that farmers frequently face barriers in their efforts to adapt to climate change, including insufficient insurance coverage, restricted financial resources, and difficulty obtaining finance (Deressa et al. 2011; Biesbroek et al. 2013). Small-scale farmers and residents in low-income areas are disproportionately impacted by these restrictions, which increases their susceptibility to risks associated with climate change (Kushnarenko et al. 2021).

• (a) Financial constraints: The ability of farmers in Bo District to invest in new technology, equipment, and infrastructure required for adaptation is hampered by insufficient financial resources and limited access to credit (Alam et al. 2016; Mofolo & Kheleli 2021). Insufficient finance for adaptation methods and the labor resources required to address climate change are examples of a lack of financial support (Sanga et al. 2013; Mofolo & Kheleli 2021). According to a survey conducted in Bo District, Sierra Leone, a significant majority of farmers, over 90%, hold the belief that their ability to address climate change is hindered by a dearth of financial capital. This perception persists despite the availability of loans from the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) (GoSL-MAFFS 2015; World Bank-SL 2015), which assist individuals in ensuring the sustenance of food security within their households, augment their financial resources, and enhance overall nutritional well-being.

• (b) High cost of production: Rising input costs in Bo District hinder farmers’ adoption of sustainable farming practices, increasing susceptibility to climate change (GoSL-MAFFS 2015; Mofolo & Kheleli 2021). Addressing these high production costs is crucial for enabling climate-resilient practices and maintaining economic viability in the face of rising costs.

• (c) Market uncertainties: Farmers are discouraged from making investments in new crops, technology, or practices due to unpredictable market conditions, fluctuating pricing, and a lack of market information (Esham & Garforth 2013). The uncertain agricultural markets, influenced by weather patterns and global trade, pose risks to farmers, making investment difficult for farmers in Bo District (Davidson 2016; Kushnarenko et al. 2021). Providing market information and improved transparency can help reduce risks and encourage investment.

Non-operational institutions and limited access to bank loans impact farmers’ opinions on climate change adaptation. In Bo District, Sierra Leone, farmers’ non-farm income is insufficient to repay loans, highlighting the difficulty in addressing financial resources (Alam et al. 2016; Mofolo & Kheleli 2021). This point of view is consistent with research done on farmers in Lesotho and Bangladesh, where this aspect was assessed as a high difficulty by 55% of those surveyed and a medium problem by 44% (Maddison 2007; Uddin et al. 2014). The assumption that developing countries are more susceptible to the effects of climate change than developed countries is consistent with the limited adaptability brought on by a lack of financial resources by farmers in Bo District (Mofolo & Kheleli 2021).

Knowledge and information barriers refer to the inability to obtain current, pertinent information about the effects of climate change, adaptation strategies, and best agricultural practices (Gorddard et al. 2016; Khatibi et al. 2021). Bo District farmers encounter difficulties learning about climate-smart technologies, weather forecasts, and sustainable farming practices. Critical knowledge and information gaps have made it more difficult for farmers in Bo District to make decisions and to put effective adaptation plans in place (Jones & Boyd 2011; Khatibi et al. 2021). Farmers in the district have found it difficult to adapt proactively to climate change issues and optimize their agricultural operations in the absence of access to reliable information and training opportunities (IPCC 2014). The article also notes that knowledge and information gaps are important roadblocks to farmers’ successful adaptation to climate change. This is in line with previous research, which highlights how crucial timely and precise information is to making well-informed decisions. According to studies, farmers’ capacity to implement adaptation methods is hampered by their limited access to climatic information, ignorance of the effects of climate change, and insufficient knowledge transfer mechanisms (e.g., Roncoli et al. 2010; West et al. 2016; Mofolo & Kheleli 2021; Morkūnas et al. 2022). Strategies to address these barriers have included enhancing the accessibility and availability of climate data, providing farmer-to-farmer learning, and providing tailored extension services.

• (a) Limited access to information: Farmers in Bo District struggle with adaptation decisions due to a lack of timely information on weather patterns, best practices, technological improvements, and climate change, leading to ambiguity in forecasts and prototypes (Gorddard et al. 2016; Khatibi et al. 2021). This phenomenon often arises due to a discrepancy between the supply and demand of scientific information (Masud et al. 2017; Khatibi et al. 2021).

• (b) Knowledge gap: The capacity of farmers in the Bo District to adjust effectively is further hampered by a lack of information or comprehension of the effects of climate change and adaptation measures (Dilling & Lemos 2011; Gorddard et al. 2016). This, however, becomes a drawback since these farmers may not always have access to radios, especially when their batteries run out. Farmers being unable to ask clarifying inquiries because they do not comprehend the meaning of the information is another barrier (Ziervogel & Calder 2003; Ziervogel 2004; Mofolo & Kheleli 2021).

• (c) Lack of technical support: Farmers in Bo District have limited access to technical knowledge because there are not many extension agencies, agricultural experts (Mofolo & Kheleli 2021), or training programs available to them, which makes it harder for them to embrace new methods (Sanga et al. 2013). Complex problems brought on by climate change call for solutions that are adapted to certain geographic areas and agricultural practices. Without the direction and experience of technical help, these farmers struggle to make wise judgments (Uddin et al. 2014). For instance, most of them struggle to choose the best crop kinds or come up with the best irrigation plans to deal with shifting climatic circumstances.

Governance structures, legislative frameworks, and coordination mechanisms are examples of institutional and policy barriers that affect how agricultural organizations adopt strategies for adapting to climate change (Alam et al. 2016). Insufficient legislation, weak institutional capacity, and disjointed governance frameworks could impede the efficient coordination and assistance required for farmers to adjust (Casey & Becker 2019). The establishment of climate-resilient agricultural policies and programs for farmers in Bo District has been hampered by institutional and policy barriers, which are noteworthy (Biesbroek et al. 2013; Alam et al. 2016). These farmers have encountered difficulties accessing resources, receiving sufficient aid, and negotiating regulatory requirements for climate adaptation activities in the absence of supportive institutional structures and cogent policies (Biesbroek et al. 2013; Casey & Becker 2019). Our findings also point to institutional and policy constraints as major barriers to agriculture's ability to adapt to climate change in Bo District. This is in line with previous research, which highlights the importance of cogent policies and supportive institutional frameworks. According to studies (Adger et al. 2013b; Alam et al. 2016; Mofolo & Kheleli 2021), farmers’ adaptation efforts are hindered by a lack of institutional capacity, gaps in policy, and uneven implementation. According to Meza et al. (2021), overcoming these barriers calls for bolstering agricultural institutions, including climate change adaptation into policy, and encouraging multi-stakeholder cooperation.

• (a) Inadequate policy support: Farmers in Bo District are unable to make the necessary modifications and investments due to inconsistent or inadequate laws, regulations, and subsidies related to climate change adaptation (Di Gregorio et al. 2017). This is so because of the presence of a multitude of established institutions in the field of adaptation that generates confusion regarding assigned tasks and responsibilities (Zea-Reyes et al. 2021), goals that are unclear or conflicting, and divergent perspectives on the nature of the problems faced by farmers in Bo District and the most desired solution (Di Gregorio et al. 2017).

• (b) Lack of coordination: The implementation of adaptation programs and the efficient transmission of information is hampered by a lack of coordination and collaboration among the many government agencies, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and research organizations (Ekstrom & Moser 2014; Kushnarenko et al. 2021). Frequently, there is no shared comprehension of what should be encompassed in an adaptation strategy, no mechanisms or tools in place for adaptation, and no collective logic of urgency to initiate adaptation efforts for farmers in Bo District.

• (c) Land tenure issues: This factor poses a significant challenge for farmers in Bo District in implementing long-term adaptation measures due to the lack of secure property rights (Kushnarenko et al. 2021). The absence of clear ownership and tenure arrangements has created uncertainty and discouragement for farmers in Bo District, Sierra Leone from making substantial investments in adaptation strategies (Jones & Boyd 2011; Laube et al. 2012).

Social and cultural barriers include gender inequality, societal norms, traditional beliefs, and community dynamics, all of which have an impact on farmers’ ability to adapt in the Bo District (Burton et al. 2008; Tompkins et al. 2010; Tangonyire & Akuriba 2022). These barriers include limited social networks, unequal access to resources for men and women, and cultural norms that obstruct group initiatives and community-based adaptation programs (Burton et al. 2008; Somda et al. 2017). The social and cultural barriers have had a significant impact on farmers’ decision-making, behavior, and involvement in Bo District climate change adaptation projects (Tait & Hanna 2015; Tangonyire & Akuriba 2022). Social hierarchies, cultural norms, and gender inequality have made people more vulnerable and reduced the efficacy of adaptation efforts, especially for the marginalized groups living in the Bo District farming community. Lastly, the paper once more highlights social and cultural factors as significant impediments to farmers’ ability to adjust to climate change in Bo District. This is in line with previous research that emphasizes how traditional practices, beliefs, and social norms affect farmers’ ability to change. Research indicates that efforts to adapt are hampered by cultural inertia, resistance to change, and a lack of collective action in agricultural communities (Deressa et al. 2011; Mofolo & Kheleli 2021). Increasing knowledge, advocating for culturally relevant behaviors, and encouraging community involvement and collaboration are all necessary to remove these barriers. Here, we will go into great detail about several societal and cultural barriers to climate change adaptation:

• (a) Attitudinal barriers: Innovative agricultural techniques are hindered by Bo District farmers’ aversion to change, their customary farming methods, and ignorance of the advantages of flexibility (Burton et al. 2008; Adger et al. 2013a). The adoption of new technologies and behavioral adjustments necessary for climate change adaptation have been hampered by their cultural norms, habits, and aversion to change. These farmers could be reluctant to embrace new customs or technological advancements that contradict their long-standing way of life (Somda et al. 2017).

• (b) Social norms and networks: Social norms within the Bo District community have influenced farmers’ decision-making and deterred them from adopting innovative adaptation strategies (Pielke et al. 2007; Adger et al. 2013a). These norms, which are unspoken expectations and guidelines, affect their resource management, agricultural methods, and coping strategies for environmental difficulties. Most of these farmers may feel pressured to follow these norms, fearing societal disapproval or negative consequences (Burton et al. 2008). Old knowledge and agricultural methods may be upheld, making farmers reluctant to stray from these customs, fearing disrespect (Anderson 2012; Adger et al. 2013a) for their cultural history or community knowledge.

• (c) Gender disparities: Gender inequality in the agriculture industry significantly impacts women farmers’ ability to adapt to climate change (Adger et al. 2013a; Eisenack et al. 2014; Tangonyire & Akuriba 2022). Disparities in expertise, decision-making authority, and resource access hinder their adaptation. Discriminatory inheritance laws (Adger et al. 2013a; Eisenack et al. 2014), cultural norms, and lack of property rights restrict women's investment in adaptive practices and technology.

The findings of the review indicate that barriers can manifest in various manners, with three distinct levels being commonly considered: the individual actor, the policy or governance process responsible for formulating and executing adaptations, and the facilitating and constraining environment within which adaptation takes place (see Ekstrom et al. 2017 for further reference) (Ekstrom & Moser 2014). When analyzing adaptation barriers, most research concentrates on one level of governance, typically local ones. Nonetheless, our results imply that a multi-level approach to adaptation barriers is required to completely comprehend the barriers to adaptation and to identify the most suitable interventions in terms of location and timing. For instance, when new rules, budget cuts, or contradictory policies are suggested, upper-level governments can create barriers to local adaptation. Climate change has a variety of effects. Impacts might be social, economic, or non-economic (environmental) (Kushnarenko et al. 2021; Tangonyire & Akuriba 2022). The effects on growth and inflation, business, domestic and international commerce, and the monetary policy conundrum are all examples of the economic effects (Kushnarenko et al. 2021; Tangonyire & Akuriba 2022). The social impact encompasses pressure on food and water supplies, hazards to human health and politics, threats to nutrition and food security, and risks to human health. Rising sea levels, shifting weather patterns, fauna, and ecology are all examples of environmental effects (Oa 2018; Kushnarenko et al. 2021). The review discovered that challenges related to the high cost of agricultural inputs, unpredictable weather patterns, a lack of water resources, a lack of accurate weather information, and insufficient credit options and agricultural subsidies prevent farmers in Sierra Leone's Bo District from adapting to climate change. The results are similar to those of Jones & Boyd (2011), Moser & Ekstrom (2010), and Birkmann & von Teichman (2010) in different nations.

Instances of market failures acting as barriers to adaptation include the existence of public goods, informational barriers, and externalities that lower economic productivity. Due to uncertainty, farmers and individuals may not be able to adequately plan for possible climate effects, which may jeopardize adaptation (Kushnarenko et al. 2021). Farmers’ ability to adjust to climate change in Bo District is significantly hampered by economic constraints. Implementing the required adaptive technology and procedures is severely hampered by a lack of funding. Some farmers, particularly those in low-income areas or with small-scale operations, may not be able to afford to invest in climate-controlled storage facilities, drought-resistant seeds, or irrigation systems due to their high costs (Kushnarenko et al. 2021). In addition, farmers may encounter barriers when attempting to obtain financing, insurance, or financial incentives that are especially intended for climate change adaptation. For farmers, investing in adaptation strategies or recovering from losses caused by climate change is more difficult in the absence of financial support. For instance, farmers in Bo District may suffer significant crop loss or even total crop failure during extreme weather events like floods or droughts. Without financial safety nets or insurance, they find it difficult to recover and modify their farming methods in response to potential climatic hazards. Effective climate change adaptation among farmers in Bo District is hindered by knowledge and information gaps. Prioritizing and putting adaptive solutions into practice is difficult for these farmers due to a lack of knowledge and comprehension of the effects of climate change (Alam et al. 2017). There is a dearth of trustworthy climatic data and scientific research available to these farmers. Decision-making is hampered and uncertainty is created as a result. To make educated decisions about crop selection, planting dates, and irrigation techniques (Davidson 2016), these farmers require precise data on rainfall patterns, temperature fluctuations, and the frequency of pests and illnesses. Establishing efficient knowledge transfer systems is essential to addressing information and knowledge barriers (Moser & Ekstrom 2010). To spread knowledge about climate change, this may entail offering training courses, farmer-to-farmer learning opportunities, and extension services (Esham & Garforth 2013). Making educated decisions can also be aided by expanding access to climate data and encouraging cooperation between academics and farmers.

The adaptation of farming to climate change is severely impeded by institutional and governmental constraints in Bo District. The capability of these to respond successfully is constrained by inadequate institutional support and capacity for planning and implementing adaptations (Casey & Becker 2019). A large number of the agricultural institutions within the district are devoid of the tools, knowledge (Gorddard et al. 2016; Elum et al. 2017), and cooperation required to create and carry out policies for adapting to climate change. In tackling climate threats, this results in dispersed efforts and slow progress. Furthermore, the agriculture sector may not be prioritizing climate change adaptation or exhibiting adequate institutional understanding of the issue (Esham & Garforth 2013). Farmers’ efforts to adapt are further hampered by inconsistent and incomplete policies in the Bo District. These farmers may be dissuaded from implementing adaptive measures by incoherent land use regulations (Masud et al. 2017; Marquardt et al. 2023), insufficient agricultural support programs, or a dearth of incentives for sustainable practices. In addition, the difficulties faced by farmers in Bo District are made worse by a lack of policy coherence among several industries, including land use planning, water management, and agriculture (Masud et al. 2017). Stronger institutional frameworks, inclusive policy-making procedures, and concerted efforts from all stakeholders are needed to address institutional and policy impediments (Masud et al. 2017; Marquardt et al. 2023). To do this, it is necessary to incorporate adaptation to climate change into agricultural strategies, set precise directives, and guarantee sufficient funding for their execution.

The way that farmers in Bo District adapt to climate change can be greatly impacted by social and cultural issues. Change may be resisted or innovation in farming methods may be discouraged by traditional ideas, customs, and social conventions (Burton et al. 2008; Pauw 2013; Sanga et al. 2013). Certain cultural practices, including using antiquated irrigation methods that produce wastewater or relying on traditional crop varieties that are unadaptable to changing conditions, may not be consistent with efforts to adjust to climate change (Tangonyire & Akuriba 2022). Increasing awareness and encouraging the adoption of sustainable and climate-resilient activities are necessary to overcome these barriers. Moreover, efficient adaptation depends on cooperation and coordinated efforts among farming communities within the district (Esham & Garforth 2013). Due to things like competition, different socioeconomic situations, or unequal access to resources, this might be difficult. Collaborative efforts toward climate change adaptation can be aided by overcoming social and cultural barriers (Eisenack et al. 2014; Gorddard et al. 2016) through the development of social capital, community participation, and participatory approaches.

When it comes to climate change adaptation strategies, socioeconomic considerations are crucial as they interact with the identified and aforementioned barriers, thus, shaping their impacts on the agricultural activities in Bo District, Sierra Leone. The socioeconomic factors include, but are not limited to: education, income, farm experience, access to extension services, limited access to market, and lack of credit facilities. A possible explanation could be that farmers with higher levels of education are more aware of and knowledgeable about the negative effects of climate change than farmers with lower levels of education. More highly educated people would fare better financially due to their improved ability to adapt to climate change. As a result, disparities in income and education have a big influence on adaptation strategies. In addition, farmers who have limited access to financing facilities, agricultural markets, and agricultural extension are less likely to adapt. The studies by Masud et al. (2017), Nhemachena & Hassan (2007), Deressa et al. (2011), Gbetibouo (2009), Adger et al. (2007), and Eakin et al. (2014), which discovered that socioeconomic factors like age, education, farm income, limited access to agricultural extension, lack of credit facilities, limited access to agricultural markets, and farm size determine farmers’ adaptation practices to climate change, are supported by these results. Furthermore, the research also revealed that one of the key components in creating effective adaption techniques is farm experience. The studies of Adams et al. (2015), Arunrat et al. (2016), Epule & Bryant (2016), Nyong et al. (2007), and Thomas et al. (2008) provide evidence in favor of this claim. The argument put up was that seasoned farmers possess admirable native adaptation techniques and might be able to recognize and respond to variations in climate conditions. These are typical components that might affect how farmers adjust to climate change. A summary of previous studies and key research findings is presented in Table 2.

The identified barriers to farmers’ adaptation to climate change in Bo District, Sierra Leone have significant implications for climate change policies in the district (Siebenhüner et al. 2021). These barriers, such as limited financial resources, lack of credit access, inadequate insurance coverage, and knowledge and information gaps, hinder the effectiveness of climate change policies and initiatives (Jordan et al. 2015). Firstly, farmers in Bo District find it difficult to carry out the policy-recommended climate change adaptation measures due to their low financial resources and lack of access to credit (Biesbroek et al. 2014). These farmers are unable to implement climate-resilient technology or upgrade their infrastructure to resist climate-related difficulties since they lack the required capital and financing. As a result, the effectiveness of climate change programs is compromised if local policy implementation fails (Biesbroek et al. 2014; Jordan et al. 2015). Secondly, uneven and disjointed climate change policies may result from the institutional and policy issues mentioned earlier, such as insufficient institutional capacity and policy gaps (Biesbroek et al. 2014; Jordan et al. 2015). Farmers and other stakeholders in the Bo District may become confused as a result of these gaps, which makes it challenging to plan and carry out effective national climate change initiatives (Ekstrom & Moser 2014). This may prevent several policies from working together effectively and coherently, which would reduce their overall impact (Brouwer et al. 2013; Marquardt et al. 2023).

Additionally, informed decision-making for farmers and policymakers is further hampered by knowledge and information gaps, which include restricted access to trustworthy climate data and scientific studies (Brouwer et al. 2013; Biesbroek et al. 2014). The development of focused and successful climate change plans that meet the unique difficulties faced by farmers in various parts of Bo District is made more difficult in the absence of precise and current climate data. This may result in policies that are inadequate to meet local needs and may not adequately address the concerns of farmers. Furthermore, the combination of these barriers may impede the efforts of farmers in Bo District to adapt to climate change. The adoption of climate-resilient practices and technology has been hampered by the absence of information transfer methods (Masud et al. 2017; Morkūnas et al. 2022), institutional incapacity, and limited resources. This setback may prolong attempts to strengthen the agricultural sector's resilience and raise its susceptibility to hazards associated with climate change within the Bo District (Casey & Becker 2019). Lastly, traditional beliefs and practices – among other social and cultural factors – that function as barriers to change present further difficulties for the implementation of successful climate change policy (Pauw 2013; Mofolo & Kheleli 2021). Adopting climate-resilient practices and technology successfully requires overcoming resistance and encouraging behavioral change within communities (Burton et al. 2008; Biesbroek et al. 2014). This shows that to guarantee that measures addressing climate change are effective, social and cultural barriers must be addressed.

While comprehensive reviews aim to be thorough and open, certain limitations should be acknowledged, while suggesting possible directions for future research. As such, the review was restricted to English written material, potentially missing out on evidence from non-English sources that could shed light on barriers to adaptation. Firstly, given the exploratory nature of our study, additional research is required to verify these results. To this end, future research should review the conceptualization of barriers to farmers’ adaptation to climate change. In particular, as suggested by Biesbroek et al. (2013), our review findings give rise to further research aimed at assessing the efficiency of existing agricultural and climate change policies supporting adaptation efforts for farmers. Second, we suggest the examination of the gender-specific impacts of climate change on female farmers and investigate strategies that promote gender equity and social inclusion in adaptation initiatives. Third, we recommend the assessment of the socioeconomic and environmental impacts aimed at adapting to climate change on the livelihood, agricultural productivity, and resilience of farmers. Finally, there is a need to examine community-based adaptation strategies that strengthen local communities, include stakeholders in the decision-making process, and increase their capacity to resist the impacts of climate change.

A comprehensive examination of existing scholarly works has been conducted to ascertain the formidable barriers that hinder farmers’ ability to adapt to climate change, with a specific focus on the context of Bo District, Sierra Leone. Farmers in Bo District, Sierra Leone encounter numerous formidable barriers when it comes to adapting to climate change. The aforementioned barriers can be classified into four distinct categories, including economic, knowledge and information, institutional and policy, and social and cultural considerations. Economically, limited financial resources and a lack of access to credit and insurance make it difficult for farmers in Bo District to invest in adaptive technologies and recover from climate-related losses. This hampers their ability to implement necessary strategies to adapt to climate change. In terms of knowledge and information barriers, farmers in Bo District often lack access to reliable and timely climate information and scientific research. This leads to uncertainty and makes it challenging for them to prioritize and implement appropriate adaptive strategies. Institutionally, farmers in Bo District face challenges in terms of inadequate institutional support and capacity for climate change adaptation planning and implementation in the agricultural sector. Furthermore, policy gaps and inconsistencies hinder farmers’ adaptation efforts. Socially and culturally, traditional beliefs, practices, and social norms can act as barriers to climate change adaptation. These factors may resist change or discourage innovation in farming methods. Climate-smart technology, resource conservation, and sustainable agricultural practices should be given high attention by policymakers, as they create and execute climate-resilient agriculture policies. Give farmers access to financial resources and support networks so they may adopt strategies for coping with climate change and fortifying their resistance to environmental barriers. To ensure that farmer assistance programs and adaptation activities are implemented successfully, they need also to improve institutional capacity, coordination, and governance structures. Through training, capacity-building, and extension services, practitioners should help farmers learn about climate-smart agricultural practices, weather forecasting, and sustainable land management measures. To increase farming methods’ sustainability and economic viability in the face of climate change, they should also enhance information exchange, technology transfer, and community-based adaptation initiatives; foster alliances and partnerships with nearby communities, NGOs, and governmental organizations; and promote market connections, value-added agricultural goods, and income source diversification. Colleague academics should conduct further studies to assess the effectiveness of various climate change adaptation plans in the Bo District and other related areas. Additionally, look at how gender inequality and social inclusion might be promoted in adaptation efforts by examining the effects of climate change on female farmers.

The decrease in the negative impacts of climate change and reaping the benefits of adaptation is imperative for farmers, particularly in developing nations such as Sierra Leone, with particular reference to Bo District. This is the perfect time to increase farmers’ knowledge of how to adapt to climate change and implement appropriate adaptation strategies to mitigate its negative effects. This could be accomplished by:

• Establishing training programs that educate farmers on climate-smart farming methods, and develop their skills and capacity to adapt to climate change impacts.

• Putting in place community-based knowledge-sharing networks to help farmers share information and best practices. strengthening cooperation between local communities, NGOs, and government organizations to guarantee that policies are implemented effectively and that farmers are supported.

• Strengthening institutional frameworks, integrating climate change adaptation into agricultural policies, and ensuring policy coherence between different sectors, while also encouraging the government to provide financial aid or subsidies to farmers who adopt climate-resilient farming methods.

• Increasing knowledge, advocating for culturally relevant behaviors, and encouraging community involvement and collaboration are all necessary to remove barriers related to social and cultural barriers.

• Establishing gender-inclusive strategies for adapting to climate change that ensure equitable benefits and involvement for all community members, as well as promoting community involvement and engagement in decision-making processes for strategies to adapt to climate change.

• Policymakers should develop effective adaptation plans for farmers, including lowering input costs, improving irrigation systems, providing subsidies, and expanding market access to mitigate climate change's negative impacts. Also, they should incorporate adaptation to climate change into agricultural strategies, set precise directives, and guarantee sufficient funding for their execution.

Tongji University provided funding for this research through the Chinese Government Scholarship.

All relevant data are included in the paper or its Supplementary Information.

The authors declare there is no conflict.