A review of India's water policy and implementation toward a sustainable future

Water is an essential component of life and a resource on which all living things depend for survival, growth, and development. Studies reveal that over the past 800,000 years, the planet has cycled through eight ice ages and warmer periods (Santer et al. 1996). The 2021 NOAA Annual Climate Report states that, the Earth's temperature has experienced a notable rise, increasing by 0.14 °F (0.08°C) on average every 10 years since 1880, amounting to a total increase of approximately 2 ° F – the year 2022 stands recorded as the sixth-warmest year based on NOAA's temperature data. In today's era, human activities affect ecological changes, with observable effects spanning diverse domains, including biodiversity decline, increasing ocean temperatures, water-related crises, deforestation, and the pollution of air and water sources (Shukla et al. 2019). As water is regarded as a fundamental pillar underpinning the economy, environment, and social fabric of nations across the globe, it is acknowledged as a pivotal catalyst for both economic and social development, playing a crucial role in nurturing well-being, advancing gender equality, enabling flexibility, and actively contributing to the establishment of inclusive towns and communities (Bharat & Dkhar 2018). Its finite nature mandates judicious allocation among diverse and sometimes competing needs, ensuring its efficient and equitable use for the collective welfare of communities in the long term. To mitigate these challenges, significant steps have been defined by the World Meteorological Congress before they become a crisis, such as ensuring that communities are not taken off guard by unexpected floods, equipping everyone to handle and mitigate the impacts of drought efficiently, providing knowledge of water quality, using top-notch data to advance scientific understanding in water-related fields, and employing scientific insights as the foundation for effective operational hydrology practices. The latest initiative of the United Nations Water Action Decade (2018–2028) focused on integrated water resources management and sustainable development for policy formulation and planning. In 2017, global statistics revealed that approximately 5.3 billion people, constituting 71% of the world population, had access to clean and safe drinking water in their homes (WHO & UNICEF 2017a). However, 844 million people still do not have access to clean drinking water, and 159 million depend on untreated surface water (WHO & UNICEF 2017b).

Furthermore, 2 billion people utilize contaminated drinking water sources, leading to 1.9% of the global disease burden and causing 829,000 annual deaths from waterborne diseases such as diarrhea (WHO 2019). To be healthy, happy, and prosperous, people have a fundamental human right to access clean drinking water and sanitation (Hartleya et al. 2019). These facilities are necessary for proper hydration, cleanliness, bathing, hand washing, and safe waste disposal. As a result, people may endure long journeys to access water, causing them to miss educational or work opportunities (Payton et al. 2023).

India is a densely populated, monsoon-dependent, and rural-based nation. Water scarcity presents imminent threats, fueling potential conflicts among sectors and regions while intensifying challenges to food security and livelihoods (Rakkasagi et al. 2023). It gets 4,000 km³ of water annually through rainfall (Kumar et al. 2005), but the distribution varies widely across seasons and regions. Approximately 85% of India's rural population relies exclusively on groundwater, a resource undergoing rapid depletion. The Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment satellite (Singh & Kumar 2020), functioned by National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), has identified that groundwater is diminishing at an average rate of 4 cm, the equivalent of water height per year, in northwestern India. This highlights the urgent need for sustainable water management practices to address the escalating depletion of this vital resource (Rodell et al. 2009). In India, water availability per person is a marker for water stress. With the projected rise in population by 2025, it is expected to drop to levels indicative of water scarcity (Sampath et al. 2008). India falls under either the "water-stressed" or "water-scarce" categories based on per capita water availability. Rising demand exacerbates this pressure, while climate change amplifies variability in the water cycle, resulting in increased extreme weather events. This irregularity significantly impacts water resource availability (Rawat et al. 2024; Singh & Kumar 2024).

Consequently, this chain of effects threatens sustainable development, biodiversity, and the human right to water and sanitation. In addition, it is imperative to recognize that only a minute fraction of the Earth's vast water reservoir is readily accessible to humanity. Approximately 30.1% of the freshwater and a mere 0.75% of the total water content on our planet are within our immediate reach. Human civilization draws upon a mere 0.08% of the world's water to fulfill crucial requirements for sanitation, hydration, storage, recreation, and agriculture (Levesque et al. 2008). Thus, humanity consistently harnesses this invaluable resource for manifold purposes, underscoring its paramount significance in our lives. These shifts were primarily linked to minute variations in the Earth's orbit, altering the amount of solar energy reaching our planet.

Water management faces unprecedented challenges due to increasing population pressures, climate change, and competing demands for water resources. Traditional approaches often fall short, neglecting the complexity of social and environmental systems (Amarasinghe et al. 2007). Helbing et al. (2015) highlighted that conventional strategies can fail to adequately address issues such as crowd disasters, crime, and disease spreading, primarily because they overlook essential feedback loops and instabilities inherent in these complex systems. This insight emphasized the need for innovative frameworks incorporating complex science to enhance water management and sustainability.

Brglez et al. (2024) studied the complexity and interconnectedness of circular cities and the circular economy for sustainability, exploring the dynamic relationship between circular cities and the circular economy. It identified emerging research areas, including urban metabolism, urban mining, governance models, and value chain management. The paper explored that transitioning from linear to circular city models can significantly contribute to sustainability goals, focusing on holistic urban configurations, social integration, and communal well-being, aiming to reduce resource consumption, manage waste more effectively, and create resilient urban environments. The paper emphasized the need for integrated urban planning, improved governance, and sustainable infrastructure to accelerate the transition toward circular cities.

According to a business policy document from International Business Machines Corporation, the growth of all aspects and technologies of our lives is directed toward achieving a bright planet. Multiple sectors, including intensive agriculture, wastewater, mining, industrial production, and untreated urban runoff, are recognized as significant contributors to water pollution (Berthet et al. 2021). Efficiently using water from diverse sources proves challenging, revealing deficiencies in traditional water management methods. Current approaches to water usage demonstrate restricted cost-effectiveness, and there is a hesitancy to embrace recent Information and Communication Technologies (Koech & Langat 2018). Nonetheless, machine learning algorithms possess the potential to enhance learning approaches notably, mainly when targeted at specific objectives. In recent years, substantial changes have emerged since artificial intelligence (AI) emerged across several industries, representing a beacon of hope for addressing complex challenges (Bozkurt et al. 2023). Research has increasingly focused on the role of AI in diverse areas of human activity, spanning from public health to education and industry transformation. Specifically, studies by Biswas (2023) have highlighted its potential in areas such as public health and addressing global warming, while Kohnke et al. (2023) emphasize its transformative impact on education. Gursoy et al. (2022) and Iwuozor et al. (2023) further underscore its role in revolutionizing various industry sectors. In the contemporary context, integrating AI, particularly in intelligent water management systems (Singh et al. 2024), presents promising implications for improving water supply efficiency and optimizing service delivery processes. This underscores the growing importance of AI in addressing pressing societal and environmental challenges through innovative technological solutions.

Several challenges persist in India's water management landscape, including delays in establishing River Basin Agencies/Authorities/Organizations, inadequate implementation of recommended policies, intricate inter-state disputes, and overly optimistic assessments of annual water availability. Social sustainability should be addressed in current water policies demanding more significant attention. Concerns about equity and the insufficient inclusion of multi-stakeholder participation in policy formulation and implementation are crucial considerations (Saleth & Dinar 1999; Kumar 2010; Katyaini & Barua 2016). Moreover, challenges such as the desiccation of rivers, depletion of spring sets in the Himalayan region, and the absence of contemporary technologies and up-to-date scientific knowledge, encompassing both natural and social dimensions such as Remote Sensing (RS), Geographic Information System (GIS), and satellite imagery, exacerbate the situation. This exacerbation results in an imbalanced and inefficient water supply across diverse sectors (Soderberg 2016).

Civil society is pivotal in enhancing community capacity and overseeing resource management within decentralized frameworks. It addresses technical capacity gaps, disseminates information on policies and plans, and mitigates political interference through vigilant monitoring. Civil society ensures fair water distribution and sustainable resource management, underscoring their significance in concurrent monitoring roles for the sector's benefit (Baby & Reddy 2013; Cronin & Thompson 2014).

To bridge the gap, it is crucial to formulate comprehensive water management policies. Addressing water-related issues requires well-defined policies and regulations at international, national, state, and district levels, enforced by competent authorities. Kathpalia & Kapoor (2001) introduced a new institutional framework emphasizing integrated groundwater and surface water planning, encompassing conservation, recycling, and utilization. Suresh (2021) conducted a study comparing water availability and demand across various sectors, projecting future water availability and user demands in 2025 and 2050. Recognizing water as a shared resource, effective water resource management aims to allocate water impartially to meet diverse needs and demands. Achieving a harmonious balance between human utilization and environmental preservation necessitates the implementation of water policies at national, state, or sub-state levels. Saleth & Dinar (2004) and Araral & Yu (2013) examined water governance in 2001 and 2010 using 20 indicators encompassing water laws, policies, and administration, respectively. Their findings reveal that the economic development of a country positively correlates with its water laws, including integration with other laws, centralization of governance, and officials' accountability. More economically developed nations tend to have more advanced water laws. However, water laws are influenced by various factors such as culture, water resources, historical legal frameworks, and political economy.

A report from June 2018 by NITI Aayog called the ‘Composite Water Management Index' found that India is dealing with its worst water crisis ever. Almost 600 million people are facing severe water problems. This situation may escalate by 2030 because the water demand will double, but the supply will remain unchanged. Such circumstances could lead to substantial shortages and a 6% drop in India's money-making. Against this backdrop, AI emerges as a promising solution, offering the potential to transform India's response to its water crisis. With its capacity to analyze vast datasets and optimize distribution systems, it promises to significantly reduce water wastage and chart a path toward a sustainable future for the nation.

Integrating AI in water management marks a significant paradigm shift, providing practical water purification, distribution, and conservation solutions. The application of AI tools aims to identify and prevent water leakage throughout the supply network, with a primary emphasis on reducing non-revenue water. By implementing advanced technologies and strategic management approaches, the initiative endeavors to address physical water losses within distribution systems, heralding the advent of more efficient water management practices. These examples showcase the diverse AI applications in water management, underscoring its capability to address water-related challenges across different geographical contexts.

AI has become crucial in Asia, where an alarming 29 billion m³ of water is lost annually due to leaks, equivalent to sustaining 150 million people. The detection and resolution of leaks, often unnoticed at both household and citywide scales, represent substantial opportunities for conservation efforts. By analyzing water usage patterns, AI-driven systems can swiftly identify anomalies indicative of leaks and promptly notify authorities for resolution, thereby saving time and water resources. Beyond leak detection, AI is pivotal in ensuring water quality by detecting pipeline contamination sources and issuing real-time alerts for rapid responses to maintain water safety standards. Furthermore, AI optimizes water distribution by analyzing usage data and automatically adjusting flow based on demand, minimizing waste and maximizing supply efficiency.

AI-enabled communication systems enhance transparency, promptly update consumers about supply disruptions or leaks, and empower citizens. This comprehensive integration of AI technologies improves the efficiency of water management practices and fosters sustainable approaches, proving indispensable in addressing water scarcity challenges, particularly in regions like India (Rakkasagi et al. 2024). In the chase of transformation of water management through AI optimization, India relies on strategic partnerships between governmental and private entities.

The G20 platform, renowned for fostering global cooperation, is crucial in advancing this transformative agenda. An example of collaboration was seen in the Atal New India Challenge-Atal Research and Innovation for Small Enterprise (ANIC-ARISE) initiative, an integral part of the Aatmanirbhar Bharat Abhiyan. This initiative facilitates partnerships between Indian startups and Micro, Small, and Medium Enterprises to leverage AI across various sectors, including water management. The Department of Science and Technology (DST)-Intel Collaborative Research initiative further underscores the collaborative nature of the nation, focusing on real-time monitoring of river water and air quality. This collaboration between the DST and Intel utilizes advanced technologies, particularly AI, to ensure efficient and real-time water quality monitoring, which is vital for effective water resource management.

The historical roots of water policies and regulations can be traced back to ancient civilizations, where ingenious methods for water resource management were devised. Ancient Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq), Egypt, the Indus Valley Civilization (modern-day Pakistan and northwest India), and ancient China are early exemplars, creating sophisticated irrigation systems, canals, and water distribution networks to enhance agricultural productivity, facilitate urban expansion, and propel societal progress. As human societies advanced, the imperative for formalized water governance became evident, compelling nations to codify policies and regulations in response to escalating challenges like water scarcity, pollution, and equitable distribution. An early example is the Code of Hammurabi, crafted around 1754 BC in ancient Mesopotamia, which delineated laws governing water usage and irrigation practices. The evolution of modern water policies gained momentum in the 19th and 20th centuries, coinciding with the surge of industrialization and urban sprawl, intensifying pressures on water resources and ecological integrity. Pioneering nations, such as the United States, United Kingdom, and Germany, played pivotal roles in spearheading the development of comprehensive water laws and regulations during this era, laying the foundation for contemporary water governance frameworks worldwide (Bagchi & Bagchi 1991; Singh et al. 2020; Chase et al. 2014).

In the context of India, the formulation of water policies presents a unique set of challenges. The Constitution allocates jurisdiction over water-related matters to State governments (Schedule VII, List II, Entry 17), while the center holds authority over inter-state rivers and water disputes. Given that river systems often traverse state boundaries, the center assumes a crucial role in ensuring sustainable management and balancing the developmental interests of different states. This may involve utilizing other constitutional entries, such as those about forests, to safeguard catchment areas. Numerous central and state laws address water management, including the state Panchayati Raj Act, which permits the delegation of responsibilities, such as minor irrigation, to Panchayats. Similarly, constitutional provisions allow the transfer of subjects, such as water supply and sanitation to urban local bodies, providing a decentralized approach to water governance (Bhatt & Bhatt 2017; Hutchings et al. 2017).

During the colonial period, events from 1950 to 1987 were held to make water laws and policies in India, and the first NWP was introduced in 1987. The main objective of the NWP (1987) was to expand irrigated land, aiming to raise food output from 150 million tons in 1987 to 240 million tons by 2000. Additionally, it aimed to fulfill the drinking water requirements of the entire population and provide sanitation to 80% of urban and 20% of rural residents. Unfortunately, this policy failed due to a lack of support from the state governments. In the Eighth Five-Year Plan, from 1992 to 1997, there was a notable shift in the state's role, transitioning from a provider to an enabler. This transformation was accompanied by a heightened recognition of the importance of addressing water needs. After the Tenth Five-Year Plan, the NWP was reviewed in 2002, resulting in upgraded water delivery standards.

The management of water resources in India falls under the jurisdiction of individual states, with the central government's role restricted to inter-state water clashes. Thirteen states have formulated SWPs following the guidelines outlined in the NWP during the Eleventh Five-Year Plan, i.e., the period from 2002 to 2012 (Shah 2013). Proactively, Odisha, Tamil Nadu, and Uttar Pradesh developed and implemented their first SWPs in 1994, 1994, and 1999, respectively. The second NWP was issued in 2002, and the centralized India-WRIS (Web-enabled Water Resources Information System) was established in 2008. It compiled valuable data, including a river basin Atlas for India, enabling the free exchange of information among government agencies and citizens. These issues included concerns about river health, conflicts, and paradoxes within the policy's framework.

The NWP of 2012 introduced various recommendations for the conservation, development, and enhanced management of water resources in India. Its core objective was to assess the existing scenario, formulate a comprehensive action plan from a unified national standpoint, and identify the water demand-supply disparity. An extraordinary milestone in this policy was the incorporation of the Public Trust Doctrine, marking its inaugural inclusion in the NWP documentation as a facet of water sector reform and effective governance.

In 2015, the Government of India introduced the Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT) program, primarily intended to ensure water supply to 500 mission cities within 5 years. This initiative was later extended until March 2023. The Ministry of Jal Shakti, in conjunction with the Jal Jeevan Mission, is committed to providing safe drinking water to all rural households by 2024 through tap connections. In support of water conservation efforts, the government initiated the nationwide campaign, Jal Shakti Abhiyan, focusing on rainwater harvesting. Additionally, the government has implemented the Atal Bhujal Yojana, a community-led project aimed at effective groundwater management. This initiative has been rolled out in several water-stressed states in India, including Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka, Haryana, and Maharashtra. In November 2019, the Ministry of Jal Shakti formulated the new NWP. Subsequently, the Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation 2.0 (AMRUT 2.0) was inaugurated on 1 October 2021, to extend water supply coverage from 500 cities to all statutory towns. Its primary objective is to foster ‘self-reliance’ and ensure ‘water security’ for all cities involved in the program.

According to the National Water Body Census, 2023, the country will have 2,424,540 water bodies. Among these, 59.5% (1,442,993) comprise ponds, 15.7% (381,805) are categorized as tanks, 12.1% (292,280) are identified as reservoirs, while the remaining 12.7% (307,462) include water conservation structures, check dams, percolation tanks, lakes, and other water bodies. Of the total enumerated water bodies, 97.1% (2,355,055) are in rural areas, and the remaining 2.9% (69,485) are in urban areas. Approximately 78% are artificial water bodies, while 22% are naturally occurring. West Bengal leads in the number of ponds and reservoirs, whereas Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, and Maharashtra stand out as the leading states for lakes and water conservation structures (Gupta et al. 2023). The water bodies serve diverse purposes, including irrigation, industrial use, pisciculture, domestic/drinking, and groundwater recharge. The top five districts utilizing water bodies for irrigation are Vizianagaram, Srikakulam, and Visakhapatnam in Andhra Pradesh, along with Purulia and Bankura in West Bengal. For irrigation, the leading districts are North 24 Parganas, Howrah, Birbhum, and PurbaBarddhaman in West Bengal. Regarding pisciculture, the top five districts include South 24 Parganas, PurbaBarddhaman, North 24 Parganas, and Paschim Medinipur in West Bengal, along with West Godavari in Andhra Pradesh. The top five districts for domestic/drinking water needs are Hamirpur, Mandi, and Shimla in Himachal Pradesh, along with South 24 Parganas and Dakshin Dinajpur in West Bengal. Finally, the top five districts for groundwater recharge are Ananthapur in Andhra Pradesh, Aurangabad, Jalna, and Nashik in Maharashtra, and Sitapur in Uttar Pradesh.

The Ministry of Water Resources, established in 1985, is India's central authority responsible for water management. This ministry oversees three key technical organizations: the Central Water Commission (CWC), the Central Ground Water Board (CGWB), and the National Water Development Agency. Environmental concerns and water quality fall within the purview of the Ministry of Environment and Forests, while the Ministry of Urban Affairs and Development manages urban water supply and sanitation projects. The Rajiv Gandhi National Drinking Water Mission, operating under the Ministry of Rural Areas and Employment, focuses on rural water supply and sanitation initiatives. The Ministry of Power and the Central Electricity Authority also address water-related matters in power generation. Various other ministries and departments, including Agriculture, Health and Family Welfare, Surface Transport, and Finance, also contribute to water management efforts, highlighting India's diverse facets of water governance (Narain 2000).

Table 1 defines the roles of various institutions in monitoring and managing water-related data in India. Water-related data collection is distributed across multiple agencies, with each focusing on specific areas such as surface water, groundwater, drinking water, and sanitation to ensure a comprehensive approach to water management. The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) and State Pollution Control Board are primarily responsible for monitoring surface and groundwater quality, with the CPCB also administering surface water quality. The CWC focuses on surface water quality, while the CGWB monitors groundwater. Municipal authorities manage drinking water quality, sanitation, and supply. The Ministry of Rural Affairs and Employment also administers the quality and supply of drinking water in rural areas.

India, known for its abundant water resources, is paradoxically one of the most water-stressed nations considering its freshwater availability (comprising only 4% of the world's freshwater resources despite accommodating 17.81% of the global population) (World Bank Group 2018). The nation is heading toward a water scarcity situation, influenced by the difficulties arising from a growing population and fast-paced urbanization. Several challenges, such as uneven regional distribution, susceptibility to climate change, excessive use of groundwater, inefficiencies in water utilization, water pollution, and a fragmented institutional framework, exacerbate this issue. Despite India being endowed with a wealth of water bodies historically vital for fulfilling domestic, agricultural, and diverse needs, these challenges are impacting the availability of this precious resource. The issue of water scarcity has gained prominence in conversations concerning India's socio-economic future, especially in the past decade.

Over time, naturally occurring and artificially constructed water bodies, such as lakes, tanks, ponds, and similar structures, have played a critical role in supporting agriculture across the country (Goyal et al. 2023). In urban settings, these water bodies perform crucial functions like providing drinking water, mitigating flood risks by absorbing excess water, and contributing to replenishing groundwater resources. The increased frequency of droughts is already causing a crisis for India's farmers, who rely on rainfall, as 53% of agriculture in the country is dependent on rain (NITI Aayog 2018). The agricultural landscape is a significant contributor to India's Gross Domestic Product (GDP), and the primary occupation of the rural population has always been closely tied to water availability. However, the challenge lies in the unpredictable and meager rainfall distribution (Singh & Kumar 2021; Singh et al. 2023a) in critical agricultural areas (Singh et al. 2023b), making the development of the farm sector reliant on ensuring consistent water supply for irrigation. These intricate dynamics underscore the urgent need for comprehensive water management strategies to safeguard the agricultural livelihoods of millions and the nation's food security amidst evolving environmental and demographic pressures. Together, these issues highlight the intricate and persistent nature of the problems that must be addressed to achieve sustainable water management in the country (GOI 2011). Singh et al. (2023c) assessed drought conditions in the Indian districts using Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) and Standardized Precipitation Evapotranspiration Index (SPEI) indicators, highlighting their impact on agricultural productivity and emphasizing mitigation strategies for sustainable farming practices to ensure food security and enhance resilience in drought-prone areas.

In today's era, access to safe and readily available water is essential for maintaining a healthy lifestyle. Enhancements in water supply and effective water resource management have the potential to stimulate overall financial development at the national level (Hartleya et al. 2019). According to a report by United Nations World Water Development (UNWWD), India is expected to have more people facing water scarcity, increasing to 1.7–2.4 billion by 2050 from 933 million in 2016 (UNWWD 2023). The report indicates that about 80% of people grappling with water issues reside in Asia, particularly in Northeast China, India, and Pakistan. According to a government policy institute report, NITI Aayog (World Bank 2023), India, home to about 18% of the world's population, has access to only around 4% of the Earth's water resources. Approximately 85% of the accessible water is allocated for agricultural use, while 8% serves domestic purposes, and 5% is utilized by industries. This evident disparity places India among the most water-stressed nations globally (World Bank Group 2018). Twelve major river systems traverse the country, with over two-thirds of the available water resources concentrated in just one-third of the land area. The eastern region's Ganges–Meghna–Brahmaputra River basin holds 60% of the country's freshwater reserves (Verma & Phansalkar 2007). About half of the annual precipitation, roughly 50%, concentrates within a brief period of approximately 15 days each year. Also, the groundwater level is steadily declining at a rate of 10 cm/year. It is concerning to note that more than 70% of groundwater and surface water resources are polluted, collectively contributing to a looming water scarcity crisis in many regions nationwide (Brief 2014).

The data reveals concerning trends, with several regions experiencing higher extraction rates than their recharge capacities, showing the need for changes in water policy. These findings emphasize the standing position of implementing robust policies and practices to ensure the long-term sustainability of India's groundwater resources.

Recently, there has been a remarkable alteration in India's tactics, as the country has begun adopting a comprehensive strategy focused on sustainability. The agricultural transformation ushered in by the Green Revolution in the 1970s aimed at ensuring food security by introducing high-yielding crop varieties and modern agricultural techniques, including extensive irrigation. This shift toward water-intensive farming practices has consequently led to a significant increase in water demand (Katyaini & Barua 2016). This approach aims to guarantee water security while addressing the environmental issues associated with water exploitation. Recognizing the unavoidable growth toward becoming one of the largest economies globally, policymakers have initiated measures to transition toward equitable water distribution and implement sustainable policies. The Sustainable Development Goal report from 2019 unveils a stark reality, highlighting significant global hurdles concerning water and sanitation. Alarmingly, one out of every four healthcare facilities needs more basic water services, jeopardizing the provision of essential healthcare. Additionally, three out of every ten individuals need access to safely managed drinking water services, while six face a similar deficiency in safely managed sanitation facilities.

The staggering figure of at least 892 million people practising open defecation underscores the immediate need for comprehensive sanitation solutions. Furthermore, the disproportionate burden placed on women and girls is evident, as they shoulder the responsibility for water collection in 80% of households without access to water on their premises. This vividly portrays the intricate challenges of universal clean water and sanitation access, necessitating unified global efforts to address these critical issues (Messerli et al. 2019). Policy formulation holds immense significance in effectively managing water resources in India. The persistence of physical water scarcity in numerous regions across the country is compounded by mismanagement in various cities and towns (McKenzie & Ray 2009). The complexities of decision-making in water resource management arise due to the diverse nature of these resources and their intricate interdependence with other elements. Involving multiple actors and institutions further complicates this process. Achieving a delicate equilibrium between human water consumption and environmental preservation is crucial. Therefore, establishing national, state, or sub-state-level water policies becomes pivotal in maintaining this equilibrium (Rathee & Mishra 2021). This paper conducts a chronological review of India's evolving water supply policies, assessing their impact, identifying gaps in policy implementation, and striving to provide insights for the future development of sustainable and equitable water access in the country.

The Public Utilities Board in Singapore leveraged AI and intelligent sensor technologies to create an efficient and sustainable water supply management system. This system utilizes smart sensor data, which AI analyzes to detect leaks and faults in the utility network, facilitating preventive maintenance and real-time monitoring. It oversees the functionality of lines connecting households, desalination and reclamation facilities, duplex pipes, water reservoirs, and other vital infrastructure elements.

Smart Cover Systems, a USA-based company, utilizes AI to monitor water and wastewater infrastructure. The system continuously uses satellite communications to measure, obtain, and transmit data. It can detect blockages, identify stormwater infiltration, and give up-to-date real-time maintenance information through an AI-driven trend analysis approach. Wastewater production is drastically reduced in towns such as Hawthorne and Escondido, California, as well as well-known drinking water and sewage utilities like the San Antonio Water System in Bexar County. Kadam et al. (2019) conducted a study within the Shivganga River basin, India, using an artificial neural network and multiple linear regression modeling techniques to evaluate the water quality index of groundwater intended for drinking. This index serves as a tool for determining various physicochemical parameters.

Moreover, the efficacy of this model was validated through successful testing during both pre- and post-monsoon seasons. Additionally, it can be adopted in other regional locations to monitor groundwater quality effectively. It can also be implemented in different localities to examine groundwater quality efficiently. Malviya & Jaspal (2021) emphasized measuring the water quality parameters such as Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), pH levels, nitrogen content, turbidity, and sulfur concentration using genetic algorithms. They additionally suggested that integrating ANN with other AI tactics can significantly improve the detection of trace heavy metals and other effluents. This combined approach shows significant potential, achieving accuracy rates ranging between 85 and 90%.

Nourani et al. (2021) employed various predictive models, including feed-forward neural network, adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system, and support vector regression, and to analyze BOD and COD levels in the Tabriz wastewater treatment plant. Additionally, the authors utilize the autoregressive integrated moving average technique to forecast effluent levels, aiming to distinguish between the predictive capabilities of nonlinear and linear models. However, utilizing AI models for heavy metal detection presents challenges due to the intricate nature of selecting prediction methods, adjusting variables, and optimizing the training process. In California, AI's predictive analytics significantly enhanced drought resilience by facilitating proactive measures and optimizing water allocation strategies. Singapore, known for its dense population, relies on AI for real-time monitoring and optimization to ensure efficient water distribution.

Similarly, Barcelona has embraced AI technology to predict and prevent leaks, reducing water wastage and infrastructure damage. Maroli et al. (2021) studied the prevailing issues affecting India's rural water supply management system. Their research highlighted the significant advantages of integrating IoT techniques into water management systems for addressing critical challenges within water supply chains. Ultimately, the researchers proposed a viable remedy to minimize water wastage within government organizations by developing an IoT-based water management system. Podder et al. (2021) introduced the Smart AgroTech system, a novel approach utilizing an IoT platform designed specifically for urban farming. This system incorporates essential parameters such as humidity, soil moisture, and temperature to assess the condition of farmland, particularly aiding in irrigation management. Within a smart city infrastructure, the Smart AgroTech system facilitates real-time monitoring of field conditions by leveraging IoT technology for data collection. Despite its potential benefits, the system faces limitations related to sensor coverage area and inefficiencies in transferring data to a web server, leading to delays. An evaluation comparing observed and actual data highlights minor discrepancies in soil moisture, temperature, and humidity readings, indicating feasibility challenges that must be addressed.

An efficiently designed water dispersion network ensures a compact water supply in a well-organized city. A proper water conveyance framework is necessary to effectively distribute water from the centralized network to individual households (Radhakrishnan & Wu 2018). As an illustration, in India, specifically in Tamil Nadu, AI technology is being employed to manage water resources effectively in regions facing stress. The Tamil Nadu e-Governance Agency has taken proactive steps by introducing an AI-driven, cost-effective monitoring system for rural drinking water supply. This initiative ensures fair and equitable water distribution across rural areas, addressing the challenges of water scarcity and ensuring access to safe drinking water for all. In Tiruchirappalli, a city situated in Tamil Nadu and positioned along the Kaveri River at the head of the Kaveri River delta, the Tiruchi Corporation was chosen by the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (MoHUA) to spearhead a pioneering project focused on detecting and minimizing losses in drinking water distribution using AI. Collaborating with the municipal administration department, MoHUA, and a French-based company, the civic body will develop an innovative, intelligent water resource management solution. Mohseni et al. (2021) utilized Bentley WATERGEMS software to analyze the water distribution system in Narangi village of Maharashtra, India. This software enabled them to assess the progression of water within each pipeline, monitor water levels in individual tanks, and assess the expansion of water flow velocity.

In summary, the global revolution in water management through the integration of AI and advanced sensor technologies is evident. India's efficient system, improved by AI models, optimizes water distribution, quality assessment, and infrastructure maintenance. Although challenges persist, such as heavy metal detection and IoT system efficiency, the potential of AI to tackle water scarcity and promote sustainability is promising, offering hope for a more water-secure future.

• It is authoritative to undertake institutional restructuring and reinforcement to tackle the evolving challenges in India's water sector. This involves establishing a solid institutional and policy framework that relies on evidence-based management and enforcement practices.

• It is recommended that the practical IWRM approach be adopted while forming or implementing water policy, as this approach advocates for more efficient, context-specific, and locally tailored solutions, emphasizing decentralized management of water resources.

• States should adopt an integrated river basin management approach to ensure basin-wise management activities and address human interests effectively.

• Administrative mechanisms must be clearly described and operationalized in collaboration with respective state and central government departments and community representatives to ensure consistent delegation of authority and prevent overlap among existing departments.

• Water-related matters are confined within political boundaries, involving multiple agencies and governments with overlapping duties. To address this, there is a need to transition toward a river basin or sub-basin-based approach for water management. This approach ensures that issues such as water allocation, pollution control, protection of water resources, and financial resource mobilization are addressed holistically.

• States should create comprehensive water policies covering priorities for water allocation in development projects and guidelines for resource management in specific regions.

• It is essential to enact groundwater legislation across all states to ensure fair and sustainable access to groundwater. Additionally, incentives under the Water Cess Act should be strengthened to motivate industries to adopt pollution control measures. Encouraging the implementation of pollution control measures in sectors can be achieved through promoting cleaner technology, facilitating process changes, and offering financial support for common facilities such as common effluent treatment plants.

• Alongside the Water Cess Act, initiatives should be taken to introduce and enforce the zero discharge concepts, promoting the recycling of treated effluent.

• Community management is pivotal for the success of the water sector, leading to reduced costs, improved technology acceptance, and enhanced facility maintenance by users. Effective pollution control requires changes in government policies and the active involvement of communities in initiatives.

• Industrial water tariffs in India usually stick to average cost pricing, disregarding the water opportunity cost and the environmental damages caused by industrial pollution to surface water and groundwater. Consequently, no pollution taxes or effluent charges are imposed on industrial polluters, contributing to water overuse and increased pollution levels. It is crucial to reevaluate the existing water pricing structure to address these issues effectively.

The authors of the cited articles in this review paper have been appreciated for their invaluable knowledge and insights. Also, the authors would also like to thank TWO anonymous reviewers for improving the quality of this review article.

The authors express their gratitude to the Department of Science and Technology, Government of India, for funding the project titled “Technological Innovation and Intellectual Property”, DST/PRC/CPR/IITIndore (G).

All relevant data are included in the paper or its Supplementary Information.

The authors declare there is no conflict.