A review on climate-smart agriculture technologies and its impacts on small-scale farmers' livelihood in Ethiopia Open Access

Climate change has emerged as one of the most pressing challenges of this time, recognized as a significant threat to both humanity and the planet. It poses widespread negative consequences for ecosystems, populations, and the environment (FAO 2018). Published documents (Belay et al. 2017; Lemi & Hailu 2019) report that climate change has perverse effects on water resources, natural resource base (environment), and agricultural productivity, so that it is adversely affecting the livelihood of the human population (UNDP 2018).

One of the global hotspots of high human vulnerability is found particularly in West, Central, and East Africa, which were characterized by the severity of climate-related disasters (IPPC 2022). This suggests that the area is a multifaceted issue driven by environmental, social, and political factors. In rural Africa, changing rainfall patterns, droughts, and other climate-related stresses are negatively affecting agricultural productivity (Mekonnen 2014; FAO 2022), making it difficult for communities to maintain sustainable livelihoods. Rural livelihoods are severely affected by climate variability, particularly through droughts and erratic rainfall, leading to decreased agricultural productivity and heightened food insecurity. Prolonged droughts contribute to crop failures and livestock losses, increasing poverty risks among resource-limited households and perpetuating cycles of hardship (Daba et al. 2025). This suggests that prolonged dry spells reduce soil moisture, leading to crop failures and lower yields. This directly affects farmers' incomes and food supply. Furthermore, excessive rainfall can lead to waterlogged fields and soil erosion, damaging crops, and infrastructure, which further disrupts agricultural activities.

Ethiopia, located in East Africa, is the most vulnerable to climate change and extremes mainly due to its location, dependency on climate change-sensitive sectors, and low adaptive capacity (Gezie 2019; Mekonnen et al. 2021). Further, Ethiopia has a diverse rainfall pattern and a complex topography (Hirpha et al. 2020; Mekonnen et al. 2021), is marked as the most vulnerable country (UNCC 2019), and is highly affected by climate change (UoND 2018). This implies that Ethiopia's varied geography leads to different rainfall patterns across the country. This diversity can affect agricultural productivity, water resources, and livelihoods. Furthermore, in the last year, 1.5 million Ethiopians were impacted by the drought, particularly in northern regions where over 632,700 individuals were displaced due to mudslides and floods. Thereupon, climate change disaster resilience hinders agricultural sector growth and increases the risk of food insecurity for smallholder farmers (Belay et al. 2017). Hence, it requires accelerated climate change adaptation action to reduce climate-related disaster risks. This implies that small-scale farmers need to become more resilient and adaptive to climate change to protect and sustain their livelihoods and ensure their food security (Paul & Weinthal 2019).

In adverse climate impacts, adaptation actions became imperative; new approaches were needed to transition to climate-resilient agricultural development (Wineman et al. 2017). By prioritizing resilience agriculture, we can safeguard food security and promote sustainable agricultural practices in the face of a changing climate. By the same token, Francis et al. (2023) noted that new or contemporary agricultural technologies have been developed to provide the highest possible agricultural yields. This suggests that farmers are adopting appropriate strategies to offset the losses caused by climate variability and change through the adoption of different climate-smart agriculture (CSA) technologies at their farms. These technologies are therefore being embraced globally as an approach to transform and protect the agriculture sector including productivity and food security.

In theory, CSA technologies comprise three core components: sustainably increasing farm productivity and income, which improves the food and nutrition security of households; supporting farmers' adaptation to climate change; and reducing levels of greenhouse gases (GHGs) (Rajak 2022). As a concept, CSA was originally put forth by FAO after the Hague Conference on Agriculture, Food Security, and Climate Change in 2009 (Lipper et al. 2014). It suggests that CSA revolves around repackaging agriculture to address the challenges of climate change while promoting sustainable development. Furthermore, it can be distilled into achieving a ‘triple win’. This argued that CSA enhances farmers' resilience to climatic shocks and attainment of food security at a household level.

In 2022, the Ethiopian government launched a program to support smallholder farmers in adopting climate-smart agricultural practices. The program focuses on promoting drought-resistant crop varieties, agroforestry systems, and precision irrigation technologies. In the Tigray region, local farmers have been implementing drought-resistant crop varieties, water harvesting, and integrated soil fertility management, which have helped to increase food production, conserve natural resources, and reduce the vulnerability of farming communities to climate variability and extreme weather events (Mekonnen et al. 2021). In the Nile Basin of Ethiopia, crop diversification, manure application, and minimum tillage led to yield increases of 20–30% compared to conventional farming methods (IIED 2022). Again, this study found that practices like minimum tillage, crop rotation, and integrated soil fertility management were associated with increased crop productivity and farmers' adaptive capacity to climate change.

To the best of the reviewers' knowledge, studies have been done on different farming practices that support CSA goals thus far, and positive results of CSA technologies have been documented. However, research on CSA is still ongoing. Literature on the effect of CSA technologies on livelihood is found globally (Teklewold et al. 2019). They addressed the effects of CSA on more immediate outcomes like food and income. Moreover, previous literature has often concentrated on the immediate outcomes of CSA technologies, such as crop yields and income generation (Dawid et al. 2021). In contrast, this study emphasizes the long-term resilience of livelihoods, exploring how CSA practices can enhance the adaptive capacity of rural households to climate variability and extreme weather events. This broader perspective on resilience is less frequently addressed in the existing literature, which tends to focus on short-term benefits rather than sustained impacts. Again, studies left a comprehensive review of CSA technologies. A rigorous methodology was employed, analyzing 73 relevant documents to provide a comprehensive overview of the existing literature on CSA technologies.

This study strives to fill the above-mentioned gaps. As a result, this study added to existing knowledge by expanding the understanding of CSA technologies and their impact on resilience and food security. Looking forward, this paper is necessary to inform evidence-based agricultural development policy decisions. Notably, findings can benefit various stakeholders, including governments, and policymakers by informing them how much CSA technologies to enhance climate resilience and address food security constraints at the local level. Furthermore, the findings also could contribute to the growing literature; to be sure, it might be used as a baseline for researchers, whose studies correlate with it.

The objectives of this review paper were to answer the following overarching questions:

• What are the CSA technologies or practices in Ethiopia?

• Do CSA practices significantly impact the food security of farmers in Ethiopia?

• What impact do CSA technologies have on farmers' climate resilience?

Agriculture is the most critical sector of the national economy and the primary source of livelihood for 85% of the population (Ali 2024). However, the production and productivity of agriculture in the country are highly vulnerable to climate variability (Dendir & Simane 2019). Climate variables such as temperature, reduced rainfall, and increased rainfall variability reduce crop yield and threaten food security in low-income and agriculture-based economies (Gezie 2019).

Climate changes affect particularly those with agriculture-based economies in the developing world on crop production, livestock productivity, horticultural crops, aquaculture, and apiculture (Lemi & Hailu 2019). Also, Zegeye (2018) depicts that climate change has caused recurrent droughts and famines, flooding, the expansion of desertification, loss of wetlands, loss of biodiversity, and water shortage, resulting in the decline of agricultural production.

Ethiopia, the second most populous country in Africa, is marked by its complex topography and diverse climate, which features varying rainfall patterns (Koo et al. 2019). Historically, the nation has faced prolonged periods of drought, with extreme weather events becoming more frequent. Such as the meteorological droughts of the 1970s and the El Niño phenomenon of 2015/2016, both of which resulted in significant crop failures and severe food shortages (Kosmowski 2018; EFDR 2019; Bahta & Myeki 2022). These challenges have intensified existing issues of rural poverty and food insecurity, undermining households' coping capacities, and reducing their resilience to climate change (WFP & CSSA 2022). Rural communities are articularly vulnerable to drought, flooding, and land degradation, which hinder effective responses to threats (Mekonnen et al. 2021).

In light of climate change, CSA has emerged as a plausible strategy for reducing and adapting to climate change impacts. It is a tactic for changing and reorienting agricultural systems to support food security under climate change and reduce GHG emissions from agricultural activities (Abegunde et al. 2019a; Komarek et al. 2019). CSA consists of several agricultural practices that sustainably increase productivity, improve resource use efficiency, enhance resilience, reduce vulnerability to climate variability, and reduce GHG emissions from agriculture (FAO 2016; Jirata et al. 2016; World Bank 2016; Kebeda 2019; Shiferaw 2021; Teklu et al. 2022; Ali et al. 2023; Sisay et al. 2023).

A literature review offers the chance to evaluate and synthesize previous studies and thus provides a basis for the development of knowledge (Dawid et al. 2021). Hence, by extensive literature review, a conceptual framework is developed for explaining CSA technologies for promoting livelihood resilience. Preferred reporting items for systematic review and meta-analysis (PRISMA) guidelines have been followed for guiding this review.

The latest information (published documents from 2014 to July 2023) has been included. Information retrieved through extensive searches on some renowned databases (Table 1) was retrieved using major keywords such as ‘effect’, ‘impact’, ‘role’, ‘CSA practice’, ‘CSA technology’, ‘CSA practice’, ‘smallholder farmer’, ‘livelihood’, ‘food security’, ‘resilience’, and ‘Ethiopia’ by combination and separately using ‘AND’ or ‘OR’.

This study included rural household-based studies that reported the effects of CSA on rural livelihood resilience. Moreover, both published and unpublished observational studies in English were included (Table 2).

Studies that weren't conducted in East Africa and articles that did n't have abstracts were excluded. Similarly, studies that were not fully accessed were omitted, because the quality of the articles in the absence of the full text could not be determined. According to established criteria, studies that did not report on the specific outcomes of impacts of CSA as well as low-quality papers were also removed from the study review. Finally, among were retrieved, 73 materials were screened based on their importance to the topic.

The reports, journal articles, and books were looked over, and data was extracted from the selected papers. Moreover, using Microsoft Excel and the common data extraction technique, all pertinent data were collected like this: the authors' names, the publication year, the study's topics, the study's location, and any potential justifications. Lastly, for getting the most recent relevant information, about 73 journal articles/reports have been reviewed and presented with pieces of evidence about the impacts of CSA technologies on climate resilience or livelihood adaptation. In short, the reviewing techniques included narrated texts and tables.

In Ethiopia, communities apply several policy responses to the challenges of climate change by applying various CSA technologies (Sova et al. 2018). As mentioned by Eshete et al. (2020), smallholder farmers in Ethiopia employed a variety of CSA technologies or practices, such as integrated soil fertility management, conservation agriculture, small-scale irrigation (SSI), agroforestry, and crop diversification (Table 3). As described in Jirata et al. (2016), the use of inorganic fertilizers, irrigation, intensive tillage, monoculture, chemical pest control, and enatic crop plants are acknowledged as CSA technologies. In the northern part of Ethiopia, farmers used practices or technologies like chemical fertilizers, manure, waterways, mixed cropping, crop rotation, tree planting, check dams, stone bunds, and tree planting. As reported by Rajak (2022), the use of organic fertilizers, the adoption of crop varieties resistant to pests, diseases, and drought, and improved rangeland management and agroforestry have all increased in Ethiopia. Again, there are also promising landscape natural resource management practices such as enclosures, which forbid human and animal interference on hillsides and mountainous areas protected for restoration purposes and farmer-managed natural regeneration. These methods have already been successfully applied in some parts of northern and southern Ethiopia.

By the same token, Ethiopia has adopted and implemented several traditional CSA practices, such as Derashe traditional conservation agriculture, Konso cultural landscape, Ankober manure management and traditional agroforestry in Gedeo, East Shewa, East Wollega, and West Gojam zones; crop rotation practiced by many crop farmers in the country; Hararghe highland traditional soil and water conservation; and Hararghe small-scale traditional irrigation in eastern Ethiopia (Gelaw 2017).

A scoping study carried out by FAO (2016) across Ethiopia examined the different agricultural practices and came up with a list of CSA technologies that are practiced by smallholder farmers, which is also described in Jirata et al. (2016) and World Bank (2016). Markedly, Table 3 presents the major CSA technologies or practices that are commonly employed in Ethiopia. These technologies are composed of various components and used for specific purposes.

According to Kebeda (2019), households that adopt CSA technologies or practices had the highest food consumption score and dietary diversity. Conversely, the average consumption score and dietary diversity of non-adopters were lower. Non-adopters of CSA consume less food than adopters, suggesting that non-adopter households are less secure in their food supply than adopter households, i.e., they lack daily staple and vegetable consumption, as well as the consumption of oil and pulses four times a week.

A similar study in northern Ghana by Issahaku & Abdulai (2020) found that the adoption of CSA technologies had increased household dietary diversity by 15.2%. This indicates that adopters consume a wider variety of foods in their households with greater acceptance. Moreover, Okumu et al. (2022) confirm that the potential role of the adoption of CSA technologies is improving household food security and reducing vulnerability. A study in Kenya by Wekesa et al. (2018) noted that CSA technologies had the potential to alleviate food insecurity among smallholder farmers. It, therefore, implies that CSA adopters were better off economically than non-adopters of CSA technologies. Once more, Abegunde et al. (2019b) confirmed that CSA avails unique opportunities for simultaneously tackling food security and facilitating adaptation and mitigation benefits. Sub-Saharan African nations will particularly benefit from CSA, given their vulnerability to the changing climatic conditions, their heavy reliance on agriculture for livelihoods, and the critical position the agricultural sector holds concerning food security in those nations.

A finding by Abonesh Tesfaye et al. (2021) confirmed that CSA technologies could lessen smallholder farmers' hunger and the extent of food insecurity. This outcome is consistent with what Abegunde et al. (2022) found, indicating that CSA technologies are crucial for raising annual household income, enhancing food security, and lowering the rate of hunger. This implies that CSA technologies have a positive effect on income benefits and food security of households. This argues that CSA practices significantly raise household food security. Furthermore, Davide et al. (2021) briefed that CSA adoption is an effective strategy to improve the well-being of farmers through increases in crop yields and the economic returns from agricultural production. This result is in agreement with work in Pakistan by Jamil et al. (2021) and in Zimbabwe by Okumu et al. (2022) who reported that CSA technologies have the potential to alleviate food insecurity among smallholder farmers. The results of this review indicate that the adoption of CSA technologies is essential to achieving the second Sustainable Development Goal (SDG), which aims to end world hunger by boosting adaptive capacity.

Specifically, SSI plays a pivotal role in improving the livelihoods of rural households, especially within the framework of CSA. A study by Abegunde et al. (2019b) on the dynamics of climate change adaptation in Sub-Saharan Africa revealed that CSA practices, including the use of improved crop varieties and efficient water management, can significantly enhance crop yields. Moreover, cultivating a diverse range of crops serves to mitigate the risks associated with climate change, thereby securing food supplies. According to Bojago & Abrham (2023), the adoption of SSI often incorporates improved farming techniques and inputs, which further enhance productivity and sustainability. This approach facilitates multiple cropping seasons, ultimately increasing food availability and nutritional quality for rural families. Additionally, SSI contributes to higher household incomes, empowering families to invest in education and healthcare. Similarly, Dawid et al. (2021) underscore the importance of small-scale irrigated farming as a vital component of CSA in rural Ethiopia. Their findings indicated that it significantly boosts household incomes compared to non-users, providing a buffer against climate variability. This pmplies that SSI users are better off in crop production, which enhances household income and enables a buffer against climate variability compared with non-users. These findings align with Mengistie & Kidane (2016), who observed that irrigation positively affects the income levels of irrigator households, benefiting the entire irrigator community.

According to Tilahun et al. (2023a), improved crop varieties had a significant and positive impact on agricultural productivity and food security, indicating that improved crop varieties have significant contributions to both agricultural production and food security. This outcome is in line with previous research by Abonesh Tesfaye et al. (2021), who discovered that households that adopted improved seeds increased their average annual income significantly and improved food security. This finding also backs up the findings of Paul et al. (2023) and Teklu et al. (2022) who confirmed that adopting improved seeds in isolation increased food consumption. This indicates that improved seeds exhibit a positive association with food consumption; hence, the use of improved varieties leads to productive agriculture, which, in turn, greatly increases food security.

According to Paul et al. (2023), adapting inorganic fertilizer leads to greater yield and food security gains. This implies that increasing yield and enhancing food security can be achieved by more efficiently applying inorganic fertilizer. This finding concurs with several pieces of literature that reported that inorganic fertilizers had high contributions to agricultural production (Tilahun et al. 2023a). Researchers Okumu et al. (2022) in Zimbabwe and Teklu et al. (2022) in Ethiopia discovered that the application of compost and organic manure enhanced the variety of household diets, thereby bolstering farmers' efforts to enhance food security and adapt to climate change. This implies that the adoption of compost has higher food security than actual as well as counterfactual non-adopters. Hence, the adoption of compost reduces the agricultural livelihood vulnerability to climate change and farm GHG emissions, while enhancing food security for smallholder agriculture households. Interestingly, adopting solely organic fertilizers, as well as combining improved seed with organic fertilizers, was associated with increasing food consumption scores (Paul et al. 2023).

According to Kebeda (2019), adopters of conservation agriculture (reduced tillage, crop residue management/mulching, and crop rotation/intercropping with cereals and legumes) and soil fertility management (compost and manure management and efficient fertilizer application techniques) had higher values of food consumption score. This suggests that smallholder farmers who have adopted conservation agriculture and soil fertility management have a greater level of experience with food security. This is consistent with research from Davide et al. (2021). Those authors stated that crop residue management had a higher food security status than counterfactual non-adopters. This implies that households can increase their yields that positively affect the food security achievable (i.e., higher food self-sufficiency and stability). The finding is also corroborated by Okumu et al. (2022), which revealed that the adoption of cover crops and zero tillage is significant and positive for household dietary diversity, i.e., food security.

According to Teklu et al. (2022), crop rotation and row planting provide farmers with the benefits of enhanced food security and climate change adaptation. This implies that the adoption of row planting has a higher food consumption score than non-adoption. Hence, the adoption of row planting enhances food security while reducing the agricultural livelihood vulnerability to climate change. Investing in this practice, the households can increase their yields positively affecting the food security achievable without market transactions and to reduce their dependence on cereals from other areas (i.e., higher food self-sufficiency and stability). As described by Davide et al. (2021), crop rotation is an effective strategy to improve the well-being of farmers by increasing their food availability. Furthermore, crop rotation with legumes had high weights for the goal of productivity, underlining high contributions to agricultural production (Tilahun et al. 2023b).

According to Teklu et al. (2022), adoption of agroforestry had higher food consumption than non-adopters Hence, the adoption of agroforestry reduces agricultural livelihood vulnerability to climate change and enhances food security. This outcome is in line with that of Okumu et al. (2022). The impact of the adoption of border trees was significant and positive on household dietary diversity at the local level. In the same way, findings by Wekesa et al. (2018) indicated that small-scale irrigation had a positive impact on the welfare of farmers. This suggests that by using SSI, farmers have managed their farm risks to ensure improved food security in the unpredictable events of climate change.

According to Wekesa et al. (2018), those who utilized crop management, field management, risk reduction strategies, and particular soil management practices had higher levels of food security in comparison to those who did not employ these technologies or practices. This implies that farmers who used these technologies were more food secure compared to their counterparts who chose not to use any CSA practice. This finding concurs with Haq et al. (2021) that the adoption of all CSA (crop diversification, mixed farming, modern inputs, soil conservation, and water conservation strategies) at the farm, as compared to a single strategy, increases diet diversity. This suggests that adopting CSA technologies in combination, as opposed to a single adoption, increases the diversity of diets and has the potential to significantly reduce food insecurity among smallholder farmers. As described in Paul et al. (2023), combining improved seed with intercropping is also positively associated with food consumption scores.

According to Kebeda (2019), adopters of all CSA technologies or practices, such as crop diversification, irrigation, conservation agriculture, and soil fertility management, had an increase in food consumption. This finding was confirmed by Wekesa et al. (2018), who argue that crop-diversified packages that include pest resistance, high-yielding, drought-tolerant, and short season crops had a positive impact on farmers' welfare. This implies that farmers need to manage their farm risks to be assured of improved food security in the uncertain events of climate change. As described in Paul et al. (2023), combining improved seed with intercropping was positively associated with food consumption scores. Similar research conducted in South Africa by Abegunde et al. (2022) argued that small-scale farming households have a better chance of achieving food security the more CSA practices they use. Implementing more CSA practices increases the likelihood of small-scale farming households achieving food security. In general, small-scale farming systems that incorporate more CSA practices typically yield higher profits, particularly regarding food security.

Food security can be substantially improved in developing countries by adopting yield-increasing CSA practices in combination (Paul et al. 2023). Household food consumption increased when all CSA technologies or practices including improved seed, intercropping, and organic fertilizers were combined. The household may be able to secure food if they make greater use of smart technologies. This implies that combined adopter households have more food consumption scores, dietary diversity scores, and less food insecurity experience scales than non-adopters. Similar studies in Kebeda (2019) that studied the impact of CSA adoption on food security and multidimensional poverty in the Central Rift Valley of Ethiopia reported that adopters of conservation agriculture and soil fertility management with SSI had an increase in the food consumption score. As described by Haq et al. (2021), rural households adopting a higher number of CSA practices consume more diversified food as compared to rural households with a lower number of practices at their farm. This indicates that farmers when using more diversified combinations of CSA packages can increase their food security status.

In suggestion, CSA can enhance agricultural productivity to ensure food security. By adopting CSA practices that improve soil health, water management, and crop resilience, farmers can produce more with less input, helping to feed a growing global population. Furthermore, various CSA practices, including crop rotation, agroforestry, and irrigation, have been linked to improved food security outcomes. For instance, the adoption of crop rotation and agroforestry has been associated with higher food consumption and dietary diversity. This indicates a better food security status among those who implement these practices.

As a concept, resilience is the ability of agriculture systems to absorb and recover from climatic shocks and stresses (Bene 2020). This suggests that creating resilient agriculture and improving food systems are critical actions that need to be accelerated adaptation activities.

The alarming rate of climate change in recent years has decreased household resilience and increased susceptibility to shocks. Thus, it needs CSA technologies or practices, which are a relatively new approach to agricultural development that aims at increasing productivity in the agricultural sector under changing climate regimes while reducing greenhouse gas emissions, building households' resilience to climate change, and reducing their vulnerability (Kurgat et al. 2020; Ali et al. 2023).

In this review, climate resilience is considered a proxy measurement of household climate resilience capacity. The findings were based on a mean comparison of adopters' and none-adopters' climate resilience index of CSA technologies or practices, such as improved variety, crop residue management, crop rotation, compost, row planting, irrigation, and agroforestry.

According to Abegunde et al. (2019b), CSA significantly enhances agricultural productivity, strengthens resilience, and reduces greenhouse gas emissions. This result is consistent with that of Bojago & Abrham (2023), who found that SSI effectively mitigates risks associated with climate variability, enabling farmers to maintain stable production and adapt to climate challenges. This aligns with findings from Dawid et al. (2021), which indicate that users of SSI experience higher incomes and exhibit greater resilience to climate change, thereby enhancing their overall adaptive capacity. These insights underscore SSI as a vital strategy for sustainable agricultural development, significantly improving the socio-economic conditions of rural households.

According to Tilahun et al. (2023b), improved SSI, use of improved crop varieties, and the use of efficient inorganic fertilizers had high weights for the goal of adaptation. This implies that these technologies have made smallholder farmers remarkably resistant to the effects of climate change. As described by Paul et al. (2023), CSA technologies have emerged as one important entry point in building climate resilience. It builds the resilience of poor agricultural households and thus sustains food security. It is concurrent with literature in Kenya, which showed that CSA practices increase the resilience of farmers to climate-related risks. Particularly, maize-legume intercropping and the use of manure as fertilizer enhance the resilience of farmers (Siminyu 2021). This implies that maize farmers affected by climate variability are more resilient when they use CSA technologies or practices. This result is consistent with the study in Tanzania; CSA technologies are made to increase productivity, improve resilience, and mitigate climate change (Kurgat et al. 2020).

According to Ali et al. (2023), adopters of soil fertility management (manure management, compost, and inorganic fertilizer) had an increase in resilience, and adopters of SSI also had an increase in resilience index. Additionally, the resilience index increased for farmers who practiced conservation agriculture and crop diversification. It was discovered that CSA adopters had a higher resilience index than non-CSA adopters, suggesting that the adoption of CSA technologies significantly and positively affect the resilience of Ethiopian rural farm households. The finding also suggests that the adoption of CSA technologies can help accomplish Goal 13 of the SDGs, which aims to enhance household resilience to mitigate the negative effects of climate change. This finding concurs with several pieces of literature, which reported that intercropping, crop rotation, soil and water conservation, modern input use, and agroforestry on farm plots enhance food security, adapt to climate change, or build resilience and reduce GHG emissions (Teklu et al. 2022). Also, Davide et al. (2021) reported that the adoption of water and soil management strengthened the resilience of farmers to adverse and unexpected conditions. A study in Pakistan by Jamil et al. (2021) revealed that irrigation, soil, and crop management practices would benefit cotton farmers and significantly create resilience to climate change.

According to Kebeda (2019), the adoption of CSA technologies or practices is critical for smallholder farmers to build resilience and reduce vulnerability, thereby contributing to the achievement of the SDG. Markedly, adopters of soil fertility management with irrigation had risen in their resilience index. Similarly, adopters' soil fertility management with crop diversification indicated an increase in their resilience index. Furthermore, adopters of all CSA packages, which include crop diversification, SSI, and soil fertility management, have been observed to have increased resilience index (Ali et al. 2023). This implies that adopters of CSA technologies have a higher resilience index compared to none-adopter households, indicating that adoption of CSA technologies has positive and significant effects on the resilience of Ethiopian rural farm households. Furthermore, households adopting CSA technologies had greater resilience compared to non-adopters; this is especially true of households that chose more diverse combinations of CSA technologies.

It suggested that as climate change leads to more extreme weather events, CSA seeks to build resilience in agricultural systems. Thus, resilient systems can better withstand shocks, ensuring that farmers can maintain their livelihoods even in adverse conditions.

Ethiopia's adaptation to climate change through CSA technologies demonstrates a multifaceted approach to enhancing food security and resilience among smallholder farmers. Thus, understanding the effects of CSA in the context of small-scale farmers' livelihoods is crucial for informing policy and development interventions. The paper highlights CSA adoption and its effects on food security and resilience in Ethiopia.

The popular CSA practices in Ethiopia are crop diversification, conservation agriculture, drought-tolerant crops SSI, and agroforestry. Adopting these technologies can significantly improve rural households' livelihoods and abate the effects of climate change stresses by enhancing their capacity to respond to climate change effects. The evidence indicates that households adopting CSA technologies experience improved dietary diversity and food consumption scores, underscoring the critical role of CSA in mitigating food insecurity. Moreover, CSA practices not only enhance agricultural yields but also bolster resilience against climate variability, enabling farmers to sustain their livelihoods amid increasingly unpredictable weather patterns.

Overall, the integration of modern and traditional CSA methods helps farmers better withstand climate variability, safeguard food security, and support sustainable agricultural development. Moreover, the adoption of multiple CSA techniques combined could improve food security and build the resilience of rural households, while also supporting progress toward key sustainable development objectives (SDG1, SDG2, and SDG13), which are directed at ending global poverty and hunger, and mitigating the adverse impacts of climate change, respectively.

The government and concerned stakeholders should seek to develop and promote CSA technologies across the country as an adaptation approach to climate variability and change. Particularly, they should give great attention to the strength of SSI and improved varities as climate change adaption in rural households.

Highlighting review limitations is essential to prevent similar limitations in future reviews and studies. Thus, there are issues with this review's timeframe and methodology that may affect the external validity and overall quality of the conclusions.

There are shortcomings in the data synthesis methods and inclusion criteria used in this review. For instance, the review only includes studies that are accessible through certain databases and that have been published in English; as a result, it might miss relevant studies that have been published in other languages. The data analysis method in this review narrates empirical findings rather than employing meta-analysis. The other issues also included studies that were conducted 10 years ago. Due to this, it may not capture the most recent advancements and their impacts on livelihoods in Ethiopia. The above limitation therefore might make it challenging to compare and synthesize the findings, potentially limiting the strength and reliability of the review's conclusions.

Avenues for further research on the topic of ‘CSA Technologies and Their Impacts on Livelihoods’ can include (i) conducting longitudinal studies to assess the long-term impacts of CSA technologies on livelihoods in Ethiopia. This would involve examining the sustained benefits of these technologies, such as increased crop yields, enhanced resilience to climate change, and improved income levels over an extended period; (ii) investigating the role of CSA technologies in improving the efficiency and sustainability of agricultural value chains and examining how these technologies contribute to reducing post-harvest losses, enhancing market access, and improving the income-generating potential for smallholder farmers; (iii) in order to evaluate publication biases even more, scholars ought to examine the review with the title ‘Impacts of CSA technologies on livelihood through meta-analysis.’

M.S.W., Z.A.A., and Y.A.D. have joint responsibility for the conceptualization, scientific review, and writing of the manuscript. They contributed equally to the revision of the manuscript and undertook all necessary editorial interventions. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

The authors are grateful to Bahir Dar University, the Institute of Disaster Risk Management and Food Security Study for instigating this to be prepared.

All relevant data are included in the paper or its Supplementary Information.

The authors declare there is no conflict.