Abstract
Cryptosporidium is an intracellular protozoan parasite, globally distributed and capable of infecting various vertebrate species, including humans as well as domestic and wild animals. Cryptosporidium is increasingly gaining attention as a human and an animal pathogen mainly due to its dominant involvement in worldwide waterborne outbreaks. The present paper reviews the current knowledge and understanding of Cryptosporidium spp. in terrestrial and water animals in Azerbaijan.
HIGHLIGHTS
First review on knowledge and understanding of Cryptosporidium spp. in terrestrial and water animals in Azerbaijan.
First review zoonotic Cryptosporidium species in Azerbaijan.
Crypto livestock, wildlife, amphibians, birds, and mammals.
An extensive report based on a comparative analysis of morphometric parameters of Crypto oocysts.
High prevalence rates in domestic and wild animals.
Graphical Abstract
INTRODUCTION
Cryptosporidium is an intracellular protozoan parasite and is a major cause of gastroenteritis (cryptosporidiosis) worldwide. Cryptosporidium is a globally distributed genus of diarrheal pathogens capable of infecting various vertebrate species, including humans as well as domestic and wild animals (Xiao et al. 2004; Plutzer & Karanis 2009). To date, a total of 44 Cryptosporidium and Cryptosporidium-like species have been described from animals and humans (Table 1).
Cryptosporidium and Cryptosporidium-like species with information on organ location and morphometric characters of oocysts reported from animals
N . | Species name . | Authors reported for first time . | Type host . | Major host . | Site of infection . | Dimension (μm) L (average) × W (average) . | L/W (Length/width) . | References . |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 . | 2 . | 3 . | 4 . | 5 . | 6 . | 7 . | 8 . | 9 . |
Cryptosporidium and Cryptosporidium-like parasites reported from fish | ||||||||
1 | C. nasorum | Hoover et al. (1981) | Lipstick tang (Naso liburatus) | Fish | Intestine | NR | NR | Levine (1980), Ryan (2010), Šlapeta (2013) |
2 | C. cichlidis=Piscicryptosporidium cichlidis | Paperna & Vilenkin (1996) | Hybrid fry and fingerling tilapia (Oreochromis aureus × Oreochromis nicloticus) | Fish | Stomach | 4.0–4.7, 2.5–3.5 | NR | Ryan (2010), Šlapeta (2013) |
3 | C. reichenbachklinkei=Piscicryptosporidium reichenbachklinkei | Paperna & Vilenkin (1996) | Reared gouramis (Trichogaster leeri) | Fish | Stomach | 2.4–3.18, 2.4–3.0 | NR | Šlapeta (2013) |
4 | C. molnari | Alvarez-Pellitero & Sitjà-Bobadilla (2002) | Gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata) and the European sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) | Fish | Stomach and small intestine | 3.23–5.45 (4.72) × 3.02–5.04 (4.47) | 1–1.17 (1.05) | Alvarez-Pellitero & Sitjà-Bobadilla (2002) |
5 | C. scophthalmi | Alvarez-Pellitero et al. (2004) | Turbot (Scophthalmus maximus) | Fish | Intestine and stomach | 3.7–5.03 (4.44) × 3.03–4.69 (3.91) | 1.05–1.34 (1.14) | Alvarez-Pellitero et al. (2004) |
6 | C. huwi | Ryan et al. (2015) | Guppy (Poecilia reticulata) | Fish | Stomach | 4.4–4.9 (4.6) × 4.0–4.8 (4.4) | 0.92–1.35 (1.04) | Ryan et al. (2015) |
Cryptosporidium species reported from amphibians | ||||||||
7 | C. fragile | Jirku et al. (2008) | Black-spined toads, (Duttaphrynus melanostictus) | NR | Stomach | 5.5–7.0 (6.2) × 5.0–6.5 (5.5) | NR | Jirku et al. (2008) |
Cryptosporidium species reported from reptiles | ||||||||
8 | C. serpentis | Levine (1980) | Elaphe gualta, E. suboclaris, Sanzinia madagascarensis (Snakes) | Snakes and lizards | Stomach | 5.6–6.6 (6.2) × 4.8–5.6 (4.2) | 1.04–1.33 (1.16) | Plutzer & Karanis (2009), Ryan et al. (2014) |
9 | C. varanii=C. saurophilum | Pavlásek et al. (1995), Koudela & Modry (1998) | Varanus prasinus (Emeriald monitor), Shneider's skinks (Eumeces schneideri) | Lizards | Stomach and small intestine | 4.4–5.6 (5.0) × 4.2–5.2 (4.7), 4.4–5.6 (5.0) × 4.2–5.2 (5.3) | 1.05–1.12 (1.09) | Koudela & Modry (1998), Ryan et al. (2014) |
10 | C. ducismarci | Traversa (2010) | Tortoises | Tortoises, turtles, other reptiles | NR | 4.4–5.4 (5.0) × 4.3–5.3 (4.8) | 1.1 ± 0.03 | Ježková et al. (2016) |
11 | C. testudines | Ježková et al. (2016) | Russian tortoises (Testudo horsfieldii, Gray) | Tortoises | NR | 5.8–6.9 (6.4) × 5.3–6.3 (5.9) | 1.1 ± 0.05 | Ježková et al. (2016) |
Cryptosporidium species reported from birds | ||||||||
12 | C. meleagridis | Slavin (1955) | Melleagris gallopova (Turkey) | Birds and humans | Small intestine | 4.5–6.0 (5.0) × 4.2–5.3 (4.4) | 1.0–1.3 (1.3) | Plutzer & Karanis (2009), Ryan et al. (2014) |
13 | C. baileyi | Current et al. (1986) | Gallus gallus (Chicken) | Birds | Bursa, cloacae, trachea | 5.6–7.5 (6.4) × 4.8–5.75 (4.8) | 1.1–1.4 (1.3) | Current et al. (1986), Plutzer & Karanis (2009) |
14 | C. galli | Pavlásek (1999), Ryan et al. (2003) | Chickens | Passeriformes, Phasianidae, Fringillidae, and Icteridae | Proventriculus | 8.0–8.5 (8.25) × 6.2–6.4 (6.3) | 1.30 | Ryan et al. (2003) |
15 | C. avium | Holubová et al. (2016) | Red-crowned parakeets (Cyanoramphus novaezealandiae) | Budgerigar, hens | Ileum and cecum | 5.30–6.90 (6.26) × 4.30–5.5 (4.86) | 1.14–1.47 (1.29) | Holubová et al. (2016) |
16 | C. proventriculi | Holubová et al. (2019) | Psittaciformes (Birds) | Birds | Proventriculus and ventriculus | 7.4 × 5.8 | NR | Holubová et al. (2019) |
Cryptosporidium species reported from mammals | ||||||||
17 | C. muris | Tyzzer (1907) | Hause mause (Mus musculus) | Rodents | Stomach | 8.0–9.0 (8.4) × 5.6–6.4 (6.1), 7.0–9.0 (8.1) × 5.0–6.5 (5.9) | 1.25–1.61 (1.38) 1.17–1.7 (1.36) | Plutzer & Karanis (2009), Ryan et al. (2014) |
18 | C. tyzzery | Tyzzer (1912), Ren et al. (2012) | Domestic mice (Mus musculus) | Rodents | Jejunum and ileum | 4.64 ± 0.05 × 4.19 ± 0.06 | 1.11 ± 0.02 | Ren et al. (2012) |
19 | C. proliferans | Kváč et al. (2016) | Northeast African mole-rat (Tachyoryctes splendens) | Donkey, Sciurus eastern grey squirrel, African buffalo, horse | Stomach, specifically the glandular part | 6.8–8.8 (7.7) × 4.8–6.2 (5.3) | 1.48 | Kváč et al. (2016) |
20 | C. apodemi | Čondlová et al. (2018) | Striped field mouse (Apodemus agrarius) | Yellow-necked mice (Apodemus flavicollis) | Intestine | 3.9–4.7 (4.2) × 3.8–4.4 (4.0) | 1.0–1.06 (1.03) | Čondlová et al. (2018) |
21 | C. ditrichi | Čondlová et al. (2018) | Yellow-necked mice (Apodemus flavicollis) | Mouse (Mus musculus), human (Homo sapiens) | Small intestine – jejunum and ileum | 4.5–5.2 (4.7) × 4.0–4.6 (4.2) | 1.0–1.2 (1.12) | Čondlová et al. (2018) |
22 | C. occultus | Kváč et al. (2018) | Wild brown rats, mice (Rattus norvegicus), Mongolian gerbils (Meriones unguiculatus) | Rodents | Colon | 5.20 × 4.94 | NR | Kváč et al. (2018) |
23 | C. alticolis | Horčičková et al. (2019) | Common voles (Microtus arvalis) | Voles | Small intestine | 5.4 × 4.9 | NR | Horčičková et al. (2019) |
24 | C. macroti | Horčičková et al. (2019) | Common voles (Microtus arvalis) | Voles | Large intestine | 4.3 × 4.1 | NR | Horčičková et al. (2019) |
25 | C. cuniculus | Inman & Takeuchi (1979), Robinson et al. (2010) | European rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) and humans (Homo sapiens) | Rabbits | Small intestinal | 5.55–6.40 (5.98) × 5.02–5.92 (5.38) | 1.1 | Robinson et al. (2010) |
26 | C. rubeyi | Li et al. (2015) | Squirrel (Spermophilus beecheyi, Spermophilus beldingi, Spermophilus lateralis) | Squirrels | NR | 4.4–5.0 (4.67) × 4.0–5.0 (4.34) | 1.08 | Li et al. (2015) |
27 | C. felis | Iseki (1979) | Felis catis (Cat) | Cat | Small intestine | 6.0–5.0 (5.0) × 5.0–4.5 (4.5) | NR | Iseki (1979), Plutzer & Karanis (2009), Ryan et al. (2014) |
28 | C. canis | Fayer et al. (2001) | Canis familiaris (Dog) | Dogs | Small intestine | 4.95 × 4.75 | 1.05 | Fayer et al. (2001), Plutzer & Karanis (2009) |
29 | C. wrairi | Vetterling et al. (1971) | Cavia porcellus (Guinea pigs) | Guinea pigs | Small intestine | 4.8–5.6 (5.4) × 4.0–5.0 (4.6) | 1.17 | Plutzer & Karanis (2009), Ryan et al. (2014) |
30 | C. homai | Zahedi et al. (2017) | Cavia porcellus (Guinea pigs) | NR | NR | NR | NR | Zahedi et al. (2017) |
31 | C. suis | Ryan et al. (2004) | Sus scrofa (Pig) | Pigs | The small and large intestine | 4.9–4.4 (4.6) × 4.0–4.3 (4.2) | 1.1 | Ryan et al. (2004) |
32 | C. scrofarum | Kváč et al. (2013) | Sus scrofa (Pig) | Human, calf, wild boar | Duodenum, jejunum, ileum, cecum, colon | 4.81–5.96 (5.16) × 4.23–5.29 (4.83) | 1.07 ± 0.06 | Kváč et al. (2013) |
33 | C. parvum | Tyzzer (1912) | Bos taurus (Cattle) | Ruminants, cattle other livestock, humans | Small intestine | 4.5–5.4 (4.9) × 4.2–5.2 (4.4) | 1.0–1.13 (1.1) | Plutzer & Karanis (2009), Ryan et al. (2014) |
34 | C. andersoni | Lindsay et al. (2000) | Bos taurus (Cattle) | Cattle, camel | Abomasum | 6.0–8.1 (7.4) × 5.0–6.5 (5.5) | 1.07–1.50 (1.35) | Lindsay et al. (2000) |
35 | C. bovis | Fayer et al. (2005) | Bos taurus (Cattle) | Cattle | Small intestine | 4.76–5.35 (4.89) × 4.17–4.76 (4.63) | 1.06 | Fayer et al. (2005) |
36 | C. ryanae | Fayer et al. (2008) | Bos taurus (Cattle) | Cattle | NR | 2.94–3.68 (3.73) × 2.94–4.41 (3.16) | 1.18 | Fayer et al. (2008) |
37 | C. ubiguitum | Fayer et al. (2010) | Bos taurus (Cattle) | Ruminants, rodents, carnivores, primates, humans | NR | 4.71–5.32 (5.04) × 4.33–4.98 (4.66) | 1.08 | Fayer et al. (2010) |
38 | C. pestis | Slapeta (2006) | Bos taurus (Cattle) | NR | NR | NR | NR | Šlapeta (2013) |
39 | C. xiaoi | Fayer & Santín (2009) | Ovis aries (Sheep) | Sheep and goats | NR | 2.94–4.41 (3.94) × 2.94–4.41 (3.44) | 1.15 | Fayer & Santín (2009) |
40 | C. erinacei | Kváč et al. (2014) | European hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus) | Hedgehogs | NR | 4.5–5.8 (4.9) × 4.0–4.8 (4.4) | 1.02–1.35 (1.13) | Kváč et al. (2014) |
41 | C. fayeri | Ryan et al. (2008) | Red kangaroo (Macropus rufus) | Marsupials | Small intestine | 4.5–5.1 (4.9) × 3.8–5.0 (4.3) | 1.02–1.18 (1.14) | Ryan et al. (2008) |
42 | C. macropodum | Power & Ryan (2008) | Eastern grey kangaroos (Macropus giganteus). | Marsupials | Small intestine | 5.0–6.0 (5.4) × 4.5–6.0 (4.9) | 1.1 | Power & Ryan (2008) |
43 | C. hominis | Morgan-Ryan et al. (2002) | Homo sapiens (Humans) | Humans | Small intestine | 4.4–5.9 (5.2) × 4.4–5.4 (4.86) | 1.0–1.09 (1.07) | Ryan et al. (2002) |
44 | C. viatorum | Elwin et al. (2012) | Homo sapiens (Humans) | Humans | NR | NR | NR | Elwin et al. (2012) |
N . | Species name . | Authors reported for first time . | Type host . | Major host . | Site of infection . | Dimension (μm) L (average) × W (average) . | L/W (Length/width) . | References . |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 . | 2 . | 3 . | 4 . | 5 . | 6 . | 7 . | 8 . | 9 . |
Cryptosporidium and Cryptosporidium-like parasites reported from fish | ||||||||
1 | C. nasorum | Hoover et al. (1981) | Lipstick tang (Naso liburatus) | Fish | Intestine | NR | NR | Levine (1980), Ryan (2010), Šlapeta (2013) |
2 | C. cichlidis=Piscicryptosporidium cichlidis | Paperna & Vilenkin (1996) | Hybrid fry and fingerling tilapia (Oreochromis aureus × Oreochromis nicloticus) | Fish | Stomach | 4.0–4.7, 2.5–3.5 | NR | Ryan (2010), Šlapeta (2013) |
3 | C. reichenbachklinkei=Piscicryptosporidium reichenbachklinkei | Paperna & Vilenkin (1996) | Reared gouramis (Trichogaster leeri) | Fish | Stomach | 2.4–3.18, 2.4–3.0 | NR | Šlapeta (2013) |
4 | C. molnari | Alvarez-Pellitero & Sitjà-Bobadilla (2002) | Gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata) and the European sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) | Fish | Stomach and small intestine | 3.23–5.45 (4.72) × 3.02–5.04 (4.47) | 1–1.17 (1.05) | Alvarez-Pellitero & Sitjà-Bobadilla (2002) |
5 | C. scophthalmi | Alvarez-Pellitero et al. (2004) | Turbot (Scophthalmus maximus) | Fish | Intestine and stomach | 3.7–5.03 (4.44) × 3.03–4.69 (3.91) | 1.05–1.34 (1.14) | Alvarez-Pellitero et al. (2004) |
6 | C. huwi | Ryan et al. (2015) | Guppy (Poecilia reticulata) | Fish | Stomach | 4.4–4.9 (4.6) × 4.0–4.8 (4.4) | 0.92–1.35 (1.04) | Ryan et al. (2015) |
Cryptosporidium species reported from amphibians | ||||||||
7 | C. fragile | Jirku et al. (2008) | Black-spined toads, (Duttaphrynus melanostictus) | NR | Stomach | 5.5–7.0 (6.2) × 5.0–6.5 (5.5) | NR | Jirku et al. (2008) |
Cryptosporidium species reported from reptiles | ||||||||
8 | C. serpentis | Levine (1980) | Elaphe gualta, E. suboclaris, Sanzinia madagascarensis (Snakes) | Snakes and lizards | Stomach | 5.6–6.6 (6.2) × 4.8–5.6 (4.2) | 1.04–1.33 (1.16) | Plutzer & Karanis (2009), Ryan et al. (2014) |
9 | C. varanii=C. saurophilum | Pavlásek et al. (1995), Koudela & Modry (1998) | Varanus prasinus (Emeriald monitor), Shneider's skinks (Eumeces schneideri) | Lizards | Stomach and small intestine | 4.4–5.6 (5.0) × 4.2–5.2 (4.7), 4.4–5.6 (5.0) × 4.2–5.2 (5.3) | 1.05–1.12 (1.09) | Koudela & Modry (1998), Ryan et al. (2014) |
10 | C. ducismarci | Traversa (2010) | Tortoises | Tortoises, turtles, other reptiles | NR | 4.4–5.4 (5.0) × 4.3–5.3 (4.8) | 1.1 ± 0.03 | Ježková et al. (2016) |
11 | C. testudines | Ježková et al. (2016) | Russian tortoises (Testudo horsfieldii, Gray) | Tortoises | NR | 5.8–6.9 (6.4) × 5.3–6.3 (5.9) | 1.1 ± 0.05 | Ježková et al. (2016) |
Cryptosporidium species reported from birds | ||||||||
12 | C. meleagridis | Slavin (1955) | Melleagris gallopova (Turkey) | Birds and humans | Small intestine | 4.5–6.0 (5.0) × 4.2–5.3 (4.4) | 1.0–1.3 (1.3) | Plutzer & Karanis (2009), Ryan et al. (2014) |
13 | C. baileyi | Current et al. (1986) | Gallus gallus (Chicken) | Birds | Bursa, cloacae, trachea | 5.6–7.5 (6.4) × 4.8–5.75 (4.8) | 1.1–1.4 (1.3) | Current et al. (1986), Plutzer & Karanis (2009) |
14 | C. galli | Pavlásek (1999), Ryan et al. (2003) | Chickens | Passeriformes, Phasianidae, Fringillidae, and Icteridae | Proventriculus | 8.0–8.5 (8.25) × 6.2–6.4 (6.3) | 1.30 | Ryan et al. (2003) |
15 | C. avium | Holubová et al. (2016) | Red-crowned parakeets (Cyanoramphus novaezealandiae) | Budgerigar, hens | Ileum and cecum | 5.30–6.90 (6.26) × 4.30–5.5 (4.86) | 1.14–1.47 (1.29) | Holubová et al. (2016) |
16 | C. proventriculi | Holubová et al. (2019) | Psittaciformes (Birds) | Birds | Proventriculus and ventriculus | 7.4 × 5.8 | NR | Holubová et al. (2019) |
Cryptosporidium species reported from mammals | ||||||||
17 | C. muris | Tyzzer (1907) | Hause mause (Mus musculus) | Rodents | Stomach | 8.0–9.0 (8.4) × 5.6–6.4 (6.1), 7.0–9.0 (8.1) × 5.0–6.5 (5.9) | 1.25–1.61 (1.38) 1.17–1.7 (1.36) | Plutzer & Karanis (2009), Ryan et al. (2014) |
18 | C. tyzzery | Tyzzer (1912), Ren et al. (2012) | Domestic mice (Mus musculus) | Rodents | Jejunum and ileum | 4.64 ± 0.05 × 4.19 ± 0.06 | 1.11 ± 0.02 | Ren et al. (2012) |
19 | C. proliferans | Kváč et al. (2016) | Northeast African mole-rat (Tachyoryctes splendens) | Donkey, Sciurus eastern grey squirrel, African buffalo, horse | Stomach, specifically the glandular part | 6.8–8.8 (7.7) × 4.8–6.2 (5.3) | 1.48 | Kváč et al. (2016) |
20 | C. apodemi | Čondlová et al. (2018) | Striped field mouse (Apodemus agrarius) | Yellow-necked mice (Apodemus flavicollis) | Intestine | 3.9–4.7 (4.2) × 3.8–4.4 (4.0) | 1.0–1.06 (1.03) | Čondlová et al. (2018) |
21 | C. ditrichi | Čondlová et al. (2018) | Yellow-necked mice (Apodemus flavicollis) | Mouse (Mus musculus), human (Homo sapiens) | Small intestine – jejunum and ileum | 4.5–5.2 (4.7) × 4.0–4.6 (4.2) | 1.0–1.2 (1.12) | Čondlová et al. (2018) |
22 | C. occultus | Kváč et al. (2018) | Wild brown rats, mice (Rattus norvegicus), Mongolian gerbils (Meriones unguiculatus) | Rodents | Colon | 5.20 × 4.94 | NR | Kváč et al. (2018) |
23 | C. alticolis | Horčičková et al. (2019) | Common voles (Microtus arvalis) | Voles | Small intestine | 5.4 × 4.9 | NR | Horčičková et al. (2019) |
24 | C. macroti | Horčičková et al. (2019) | Common voles (Microtus arvalis) | Voles | Large intestine | 4.3 × 4.1 | NR | Horčičková et al. (2019) |
25 | C. cuniculus | Inman & Takeuchi (1979), Robinson et al. (2010) | European rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) and humans (Homo sapiens) | Rabbits | Small intestinal | 5.55–6.40 (5.98) × 5.02–5.92 (5.38) | 1.1 | Robinson et al. (2010) |
26 | C. rubeyi | Li et al. (2015) | Squirrel (Spermophilus beecheyi, Spermophilus beldingi, Spermophilus lateralis) | Squirrels | NR | 4.4–5.0 (4.67) × 4.0–5.0 (4.34) | 1.08 | Li et al. (2015) |
27 | C. felis | Iseki (1979) | Felis catis (Cat) | Cat | Small intestine | 6.0–5.0 (5.0) × 5.0–4.5 (4.5) | NR | Iseki (1979), Plutzer & Karanis (2009), Ryan et al. (2014) |
28 | C. canis | Fayer et al. (2001) | Canis familiaris (Dog) | Dogs | Small intestine | 4.95 × 4.75 | 1.05 | Fayer et al. (2001), Plutzer & Karanis (2009) |
29 | C. wrairi | Vetterling et al. (1971) | Cavia porcellus (Guinea pigs) | Guinea pigs | Small intestine | 4.8–5.6 (5.4) × 4.0–5.0 (4.6) | 1.17 | Plutzer & Karanis (2009), Ryan et al. (2014) |
30 | C. homai | Zahedi et al. (2017) | Cavia porcellus (Guinea pigs) | NR | NR | NR | NR | Zahedi et al. (2017) |
31 | C. suis | Ryan et al. (2004) | Sus scrofa (Pig) | Pigs | The small and large intestine | 4.9–4.4 (4.6) × 4.0–4.3 (4.2) | 1.1 | Ryan et al. (2004) |
32 | C. scrofarum | Kváč et al. (2013) | Sus scrofa (Pig) | Human, calf, wild boar | Duodenum, jejunum, ileum, cecum, colon | 4.81–5.96 (5.16) × 4.23–5.29 (4.83) | 1.07 ± 0.06 | Kváč et al. (2013) |
33 | C. parvum | Tyzzer (1912) | Bos taurus (Cattle) | Ruminants, cattle other livestock, humans | Small intestine | 4.5–5.4 (4.9) × 4.2–5.2 (4.4) | 1.0–1.13 (1.1) | Plutzer & Karanis (2009), Ryan et al. (2014) |
34 | C. andersoni | Lindsay et al. (2000) | Bos taurus (Cattle) | Cattle, camel | Abomasum | 6.0–8.1 (7.4) × 5.0–6.5 (5.5) | 1.07–1.50 (1.35) | Lindsay et al. (2000) |
35 | C. bovis | Fayer et al. (2005) | Bos taurus (Cattle) | Cattle | Small intestine | 4.76–5.35 (4.89) × 4.17–4.76 (4.63) | 1.06 | Fayer et al. (2005) |
36 | C. ryanae | Fayer et al. (2008) | Bos taurus (Cattle) | Cattle | NR | 2.94–3.68 (3.73) × 2.94–4.41 (3.16) | 1.18 | Fayer et al. (2008) |
37 | C. ubiguitum | Fayer et al. (2010) | Bos taurus (Cattle) | Ruminants, rodents, carnivores, primates, humans | NR | 4.71–5.32 (5.04) × 4.33–4.98 (4.66) | 1.08 | Fayer et al. (2010) |
38 | C. pestis | Slapeta (2006) | Bos taurus (Cattle) | NR | NR | NR | NR | Šlapeta (2013) |
39 | C. xiaoi | Fayer & Santín (2009) | Ovis aries (Sheep) | Sheep and goats | NR | 2.94–4.41 (3.94) × 2.94–4.41 (3.44) | 1.15 | Fayer & Santín (2009) |
40 | C. erinacei | Kváč et al. (2014) | European hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus) | Hedgehogs | NR | 4.5–5.8 (4.9) × 4.0–4.8 (4.4) | 1.02–1.35 (1.13) | Kváč et al. (2014) |
41 | C. fayeri | Ryan et al. (2008) | Red kangaroo (Macropus rufus) | Marsupials | Small intestine | 4.5–5.1 (4.9) × 3.8–5.0 (4.3) | 1.02–1.18 (1.14) | Ryan et al. (2008) |
42 | C. macropodum | Power & Ryan (2008) | Eastern grey kangaroos (Macropus giganteus). | Marsupials | Small intestine | 5.0–6.0 (5.4) × 4.5–6.0 (4.9) | 1.1 | Power & Ryan (2008) |
43 | C. hominis | Morgan-Ryan et al. (2002) | Homo sapiens (Humans) | Humans | Small intestine | 4.4–5.9 (5.2) × 4.4–5.4 (4.86) | 1.0–1.09 (1.07) | Ryan et al. (2002) |
44 | C. viatorum | Elwin et al. (2012) | Homo sapiens (Humans) | Humans | NR | NR | NR | Elwin et al. (2012) |
More than 70 genotypes of Cryptosporidium have been described; 21 species and 4 genotypes out of these have been reported in humans (Feng & Xiao 2017; Holubová et al. 2019). Several Cryptosporidium species are known to be zoonotic with animals as major reservoirs (Feng et al. 2018). Wild and livestock animals have the potential to act as a biological reservoir for harmful protozoan parasites – Cryptosporidium spp. (Xiao & Feng 2008).
Cryptosporidium spp. were first described in mice in 1907 (Tyzzer 1907). Cryptosporidium is part of the Apicomplexa phylum (Phylum: Apicomplexa, Class: Coccidea, Order: Eucoccidiorida, Family: Cryptosporidiidae, Genus: Cryptosporidium) (Fayer & Xiao 2007). Recent taxonomic studies have placed Cryptosporidium as a clad separate from Coccidia. A study on the 18rRNA gene has indicated a closer relation to the gregarines (Apicomplexa, Gregarinia) (Carreno et al. 1999). This would also explain why Cryptosporidium has several features that separate it from other Coccidia: host infection is confined to the apical region of the epithelial cells, the small size of the oocysts, the formation of both thick- and thin-walled oocysts, and the insensitivity to anti-coccidian agents. Further understanding of the relation to the Gregarines is very important for elucidating its ecology and waterborne transmission (Ryan & Xiao 2003; Aldeyarbi & Karanis 2016; Ryan et al. 2016).
Cryptosporidium completes its lifecycle in a single host, and it is ubiquitous in nature. Oocysts can tolerate various environmental conditions and can survive in water and soil for many months because of suitable moisture content and cool temperatures (Smith et al. 2006; King & Monis 2007). They can be transported long distances through air and enter quickly into the water sources because of the oocysts' small size (Vanathy et al. 2017). Cryptosporidium sparked great public health interest after the large human waterborne outbreaks in Milwaukee in 1993 and rapidly was recognized as one of the most serious waterborne pathogens to date (MacKenzie et al. 1994). The outbreaks of cryptosporidiosis have been and continuously reported in several countries (Karanis et al. 2007; Baldursson & Karanis 2011; Efstratiou et al. 2017). Domestic animals, livestock, wildlife, and humans are potential reservoirs that contribute to the contamination of food, surface waters, and the environment by Cryptosporidium spp. Oocysts, thereby transmitting the infection to other hosts via the fecal-oral route (Ahmed & Karanis 2018a, 2018b).
This paper aims to report on the main results of studies on cryptosporidiosis and Cryptosporidium among livestock, wild animals, and birds in Azerbaijan territory and to provide first-hand information about the veterinary and public health aspects of this important pathogen in the Azerbaijan territory for the last 32 years. In total, 13 species of Cryptosporidium from amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals have been identified and reported from studies conducted from 1987 to 2019 on structural features of Cryptosporidium oocysts in different regions of the Azerbaijan republic.
We highlighted the occurrence of Cryptosporidium infection in animals particularly in cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, buffaloes, birds, and wild animals in Azerbaijan. A total of 70 studies were used to calculate epidemiological figures.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Geography
Azerbaijan is situated on the western shore of the Caspian Sea and occupies the north-western and south-eastern parts of the Caucasian Ridge. It borders with the Republic of Dagestan in the north (part of the Russian Federation), in the west with Armenian and the Georgian Republic and in the east the Caspian Sea, and in the south, it borders Iran and Turkey. The territory is divided into five physical-geographical regions: Greater Caucasus, Lesser Caucasus, the Kura-Aras, Lankaran, and the Middle Aras (Figure 1).
This review has been prepared based on the current literature data. More than 70 publications describing the presence of Cryptosporidium in animals have been published in the last 32 years in Azerbaijan. The language of data collection was English, Russian, and Azeri. The first report of Cryptosporidium was in 1987 (Ismailova & Gaibova 1987). From 1987 to 2019 (32-year period), a total of 9,408 samples from 57 studies on wild animals, birds, and common livestock (defined as cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, horses, and buffaloes) were examined for Cryptosporidium infection, where Cryptosporidium spp. is a widespread pathogen found in many species of domestic animals. Most of the publications (70%) are about Cryptosporidium prevalence in domestic animals. Cryptosporidiosis in livestock has become a significant problem for animal health (both subclinical and clinical) and has resulted in economic losses due to the increase of veterinary services and laboratory costs, increased animal healthcare costs, and a decrease in growth rate with a higher associated mortality in severely infected animals. Stool specimens were randomly collected from 8,668 livestock (pigs, horses, donkeys, goats, sheep, calves, buffalo, zebus, camels, and birds) and 740 wild animals (amphibians, reptiles, rodents, cats, and dogs) (Table 2). The most studied livestock animals were pigs (n = 2,857), cows (n = 2,595), and sheep (n = 1,823) (Table 2).
Summarized prevalences of Cryptosporidium reported from animals in Azerbaijan
Hostname . | n positive . | n total . | % . | References . |
---|---|---|---|---|
Wild animals | ||||
Amphibians | 30 | 87 | 34.5 | Mamedova (2010) |
Reptilia: Ordo: Testudines | 58 | 104 | 55.8 | Gaibova et al. (2017a, 2019), Gaibova & Mamedova (in press) |
Reptilia: Ordo: Squamata | 26 | 114 | 22.8 | |
Rodents | 112 | 325 | 34.5 | Gurbanova & Mamedova (2013), Gurbanova (2015), Gaibova et al. (2017a) |
Cats | 17 | 54 | 31.5 | Gaibova et al. (2017a) |
Dogs | 14 | 56 | 25 | |
Total | 257 | 740 | 34.7 | |
Domestic (farm) animals | ||||
Birds | 198 | 729 | 27.2 | Gaibova et al. (2017a), Musaev et al. (1998) |
Domestic pigs | 804 | 2,857 | 28.1 | Musaev et al. (1996), Haciyeva & Ahmedov (2016) |
Horse | 2 | 4 | 50 | Gaibova et al. (2017a) |
Donkey | 1 | 3 | 33 | |
Domestic goat | 25 | 127 | 19.7 | Gaibova & Iskenderova (2012) |
Domestic sheep | 623 | 1,823 | 34.2 | Musaev et al. (1996), Gaibova & Iskenderova (2012, 2014) |
Cow | 779 | 2,595 | 30 | Musaev et al. (1996), Gaibova & Iskenderova (2012, 2014) |
Buffalo | 135 | 318 | 42.5 | Gaibova & Iskenderova (2012, 2014) |
Zebu (Indicine cattle) | 14 | 30 | 46.7 | Gaibova & Iskenderova (2012) |
Bactrian camel | 65 | 182 | 35.7 | Gaibova et al. (2011) |
Total | 2,646 | 8,668 | 30.5 | |
Total | 2,903 | 9,408 | 30.9 |
Hostname . | n positive . | n total . | % . | References . |
---|---|---|---|---|
Wild animals | ||||
Amphibians | 30 | 87 | 34.5 | Mamedova (2010) |
Reptilia: Ordo: Testudines | 58 | 104 | 55.8 | Gaibova et al. (2017a, 2019), Gaibova & Mamedova (in press) |
Reptilia: Ordo: Squamata | 26 | 114 | 22.8 | |
Rodents | 112 | 325 | 34.5 | Gurbanova & Mamedova (2013), Gurbanova (2015), Gaibova et al. (2017a) |
Cats | 17 | 54 | 31.5 | Gaibova et al. (2017a) |
Dogs | 14 | 56 | 25 | |
Total | 257 | 740 | 34.7 | |
Domestic (farm) animals | ||||
Birds | 198 | 729 | 27.2 | Gaibova et al. (2017a), Musaev et al. (1998) |
Domestic pigs | 804 | 2,857 | 28.1 | Musaev et al. (1996), Haciyeva & Ahmedov (2016) |
Horse | 2 | 4 | 50 | Gaibova et al. (2017a) |
Donkey | 1 | 3 | 33 | |
Domestic goat | 25 | 127 | 19.7 | Gaibova & Iskenderova (2012) |
Domestic sheep | 623 | 1,823 | 34.2 | Musaev et al. (1996), Gaibova & Iskenderova (2012, 2014) |
Cow | 779 | 2,595 | 30 | Musaev et al. (1996), Gaibova & Iskenderova (2012, 2014) |
Buffalo | 135 | 318 | 42.5 | Gaibova & Iskenderova (2012, 2014) |
Zebu (Indicine cattle) | 14 | 30 | 46.7 | Gaibova & Iskenderova (2012) |
Bactrian camel | 65 | 182 | 35.7 | Gaibova et al. (2011) |
Total | 2,646 | 8,668 | 30.5 | |
Total | 2,903 | 9,408 | 30.9 |
Fecal samples were collected from wild terrestrial and marine animals, birds, and domestic animals from different natural areas and the urban or rural regions of Azerbaijan in the different seasons of the year.
The diagnosis of cryptosporidiosis relies on the identification of oocysts in fecal samples. The diagnosis is established microscopically. Fine feces smears were fixed with methanol and were stained with carbol-fuchsin and methylene green by the Ziehl–Neelsen staining method or detection of Cryptosporidium oocysts according to the procedure described by Henriksen & Pohlenz (1981). Microscopy is a cheap method but requires a skilled parasitologist and/or related expert and the diagnostic yield is dependent on proper fecal material collection.
Microscopy was the most used technique to diagnose Cryptosporidium infections in animals and human isolates from the reports of the Azerbaijan regions. Cryptosporidium spp. identification was based on conventional criteria, such as oocyst morphology and measurements. These criteria agree with those applied by Fayer et al. (2000) and Morgan-Ryan et al. (2002), who stated that morphometric measurement of oocysts represents the cornerstone of Cryptosporidium taxonomy and is one of the requirements for establishing a new species. Cryptosporidium infections from birds and mammals and attempted cross-transmission studies have been included in this review (Musaev et al. 1997).
RESULTS
Prevalence of Cryptosporidium spp.
A total of 9,408 samples from 57 studies on wild animals, birds, and common livestock (defined as cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, horses, and buffaloes) have been examined for Cryptosporidium infection in the Azerbaijan regions, where 2,903 (30.9%) were positive for Cryptosporidium spp. using microscopy methods. Tables 3–6 summarize the prevalence and frequency of parasite-positive fecal samples from different groups of animals. All animal groups, with some exceptions, tested positive for Cryptosporidium spp. regarding wild and domestic animals, Cryptosporidium prevalence was higher in wild animals (34.7%) than in farmed animals (30.5%). Fecal samples were collected and tested from 8,668 livestock animals from farms in different regions of Azerbaijan, where 30.5% of them tested positive for Cryptosporidium oocysts. Fecal samples were collected and tested from 740 wild animals captured from different regions of Azerbaijan, from which 34.7% tested positive for Cryptosporidium oocysts (Table 2). The highest prevalence of Cryptosporidium oocysts shedding was observed in feces from testudines (55.8% positive), chickens (50.6% positive), and buffaloes (42.4% positive). Overall, feces from younger (immature) animals were more likely to test positive for Cryptosporidium spp. than feces from adult animals. Furthermore, male animals had a higher Cryptosporidium spp. prevalence than female animals. In the rural and urban areas of Azerbaijan, Cryptosporidium infection was more widespread than in the mountainous areas.
Prevalence of Cryptosporidium reported from amphibians in Azerbaijan territory
Host name . | Geographic location . | n positive . | n total . | % . | References . |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Amphibians | |||||
Bufo variabilis (European green toad) | Absheron | 17 | 36 | 47.2 | Mamedova (2010) |
Lankaran | 3 | 3 | 100 | ||
Bufo verricosissimus (Caucasian toad) | Lankaran | 1 | 6 | 16.7 | |
Hyla savignyi (Lemon-yellow tree frog) | Lankaran | 0 | 2 | ||
Pelophylax ridibundus (Euroasian marsh frog) | Lankaran | 9 | 28 | 32.1 | |
Shabran | 0 | 9 | |||
Gobustan | 0 | 1 | |||
Gabala | 0 | 2 | |||
Total | 30 | 87 | 34.5 |
Host name . | Geographic location . | n positive . | n total . | % . | References . |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Amphibians | |||||
Bufo variabilis (European green toad) | Absheron | 17 | 36 | 47.2 | Mamedova (2010) |
Lankaran | 3 | 3 | 100 | ||
Bufo verricosissimus (Caucasian toad) | Lankaran | 1 | 6 | 16.7 | |
Hyla savignyi (Lemon-yellow tree frog) | Lankaran | 0 | 2 | ||
Pelophylax ridibundus (Euroasian marsh frog) | Lankaran | 9 | 28 | 32.1 | |
Shabran | 0 | 9 | |||
Gobustan | 0 | 1 | |||
Gabala | 0 | 2 | |||
Total | 30 | 87 | 34.5 |
Prevalence of Cryptosporidium reported in reptilians from Azerbaijan territory
Host name . | Geographic location . | n positive . | n total . | % . | References . |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Reptilians | |||||
Ordo: Testudines | |||||
Emys orbicularis (European pond turtle) | Absheron | 23 | 24 | 95.8 | Gaibova et al. (2019) |
Shabran | 0 | 16 | 0 | ||
Mauremys caspica (East Caspian turtle) | Lankaran | 1 | 1 | 100 | Gaibova & Mamedova (in press) |
Absheron | 16 | 16 | 100 | Gaibova et al. (2019) | |
Testudo graeca (Greek tortoise) | Absheron | 2 | 23 | 8.7 | Gaibova & Mamedova (in press) |
Gakh district | 2 | 3 | 75 | ||
Absheron | 7 | 7 | 100 | Gaibova et al. (2019) | |
Balakan, Zagatala districts | 7 | 14 | 50.0 | Gaibova et al. (2017a) | |
Total (Testudines) | 58 | 104 | 55.8 | ||
Ordo: Squamata | |||||
Tenuidactylus caspius (Caspian Bent-toed gecko) | Absheron | 4 | 19 | 21.1 | Gaibova & Mamedova (in press) |
Gobustan | 1 | 2 | |||
Paralaudakia caucasia (Caucasian agama) | Gobustan | 11 | 68 | 16.2 | |
Eremias arguta (Steppe-runner) | Shirvan | 1 | 2 | 50 | |
Eirenis collaris (Collared dwarf racer) | Gobustan | 2 | 6 | 33.3 | |
Hemоrrhois ravergieri (Spotted whip snake) | Gobustan district | 1 | 2 | 50 | |
Natrix tessellata (Dice snake) | Absheron | 5 | 11 | 11.5 | |
Macrovipera lebetina (Levantine viper) | Balakan, Zagatala districts | 1 | 4 | 25.0 | Gaibova et al. (2017a) |
Total (Squamata) | 26 | 114 | 22.8 | ||
Total | 84 | 218 | 38.5 |
Host name . | Geographic location . | n positive . | n total . | % . | References . |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Reptilians | |||||
Ordo: Testudines | |||||
Emys orbicularis (European pond turtle) | Absheron | 23 | 24 | 95.8 | Gaibova et al. (2019) |
Shabran | 0 | 16 | 0 | ||
Mauremys caspica (East Caspian turtle) | Lankaran | 1 | 1 | 100 | Gaibova & Mamedova (in press) |
Absheron | 16 | 16 | 100 | Gaibova et al. (2019) | |
Testudo graeca (Greek tortoise) | Absheron | 2 | 23 | 8.7 | Gaibova & Mamedova (in press) |
Gakh district | 2 | 3 | 75 | ||
Absheron | 7 | 7 | 100 | Gaibova et al. (2019) | |
Balakan, Zagatala districts | 7 | 14 | 50.0 | Gaibova et al. (2017a) | |
Total (Testudines) | 58 | 104 | 55.8 | ||
Ordo: Squamata | |||||
Tenuidactylus caspius (Caspian Bent-toed gecko) | Absheron | 4 | 19 | 21.1 | Gaibova & Mamedova (in press) |
Gobustan | 1 | 2 | |||
Paralaudakia caucasia (Caucasian agama) | Gobustan | 11 | 68 | 16.2 | |
Eremias arguta (Steppe-runner) | Shirvan | 1 | 2 | 50 | |
Eirenis collaris (Collared dwarf racer) | Gobustan | 2 | 6 | 33.3 | |
Hemоrrhois ravergieri (Spotted whip snake) | Gobustan district | 1 | 2 | 50 | |
Natrix tessellata (Dice snake) | Absheron | 5 | 11 | 11.5 | |
Macrovipera lebetina (Levantine viper) | Balakan, Zagatala districts | 1 | 4 | 25.0 | Gaibova et al. (2017a) |
Total (Squamata) | 26 | 114 | 22.8 | ||
Total | 84 | 218 | 38.5 |
Prevalence of Cryptosporidium reported in birds from Azerbaijan territory
Hostname . | Geographic location . | n positive . | n total . | % . | References . |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Gallus domesticus (Chickens) | Poultry farms in Absheron | 135 | 269 | 50.6 | Musaev et al. (1998) |
Phasianus colchicus (Pheasants) | Poultry farms in Absheron | 16 | 203 | 7.9 | |
Pavo cristatus (Peacocks) | Poultry farms in Absheron | 8 | 62 | 12.9 | |
Coturnix coturnix (Quails) | Poultry farms in Absheron | 26 | 120 | 21.7 | |
Columba livia Gm. (Rock dove) | Balakan, Gakh, Zagatala districts | 8 | 60 | 13.3 | Gaibova et al. (2017a) |
Anser anser (Grey goose) | Balakan, Gakh, Zagatala districts | 3 | 7 | 43.0 | |
Anser Penelope (Grey duck) | Balakan, Gakh, Zagatala districts | 2 | 8 | 25.0 | |
Total | 198 | 729 | 27.2 |
Hostname . | Geographic location . | n positive . | n total . | % . | References . |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Gallus domesticus (Chickens) | Poultry farms in Absheron | 135 | 269 | 50.6 | Musaev et al. (1998) |
Phasianus colchicus (Pheasants) | Poultry farms in Absheron | 16 | 203 | 7.9 | |
Pavo cristatus (Peacocks) | Poultry farms in Absheron | 8 | 62 | 12.9 | |
Coturnix coturnix (Quails) | Poultry farms in Absheron | 26 | 120 | 21.7 | |
Columba livia Gm. (Rock dove) | Balakan, Gakh, Zagatala districts | 8 | 60 | 13.3 | Gaibova et al. (2017a) |
Anser anser (Grey goose) | Balakan, Gakh, Zagatala districts | 3 | 7 | 43.0 | |
Anser Penelope (Grey duck) | Balakan, Gakh, Zagatala districts | 2 | 8 | 25.0 | |
Total | 198 | 729 | 27.2 |
Prevalence of Cryptosporidium reported in mammals from Azerbaijan territories
Host name . | Geographic location . | n positive . | n total . | % . | References . |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Rattus norvegicus (Brown rat) | Gakh | 8 | 11 | 72.7 | Gurbanova Mamedova (2013) |
Absheron, Gobustan | 23 | 54 | 42.6 | Gurbanova (2015) | |
Balakan, Zagatala districts | 4 | 9 | 44.4 | Gaibova et al. (2017a) | |
Mus musculus (Hause mouse) | Absheron, Gobustan | 26 | 107 | 24.5 | Gurbanova (2015) |
Balakan, Gakh, Zagatala districts | 13 | 21 | 62.0 | Gaibova et al. (2017a) | |
Meriones libycus (Libyan jird) | Absheron, Gobustan | 38 | 123 | 30.9 | Gurbanova (2015) |
Total | 112 | 325 | 34.5 | ||
Canis lupus familiaris (Dog) | Balakan, Gakh, Zagatala districts | 14 | 56 | 25 | Gaibova et al. (2017a) |
Félis silvéstris cátus (Cat) | Balakan, Gakh, Zagatala districts | 17 | 54 | 31.5 | |
Total | 31 | 110 | 28.2 | ||
Sus scrofa domesticus (Domestic pig) | Pig farms in Absheron | 201 | 1,078 | 18.6 | Musaev et al. (1996) |
Pig farms in Absheron | 339 | 874 | 39.0 | Haciyeva Ahmadov (2016) | |
Pig farms in Shamakhi | 94 | 393 | 24.0 | ||
Pig farms in Khudat | 83 | 195 | 42.5 | ||
Pig farms in Ismayilli | 43 | 220 | 19.5 | ||
Pig farms in Salyan | 44 | 97 | 45.3 | ||
Total | 804 | 2,857 | 28.1 | ||
Equus ferus caballus (Horse) | Balakan, Qakh, Zaqatala districts | 2 | 4 | Gaibova et al. (2017a) | |
Equus africanus asinus (Donkey) | Balakan, Qakh, Zaqatala districts | 1 | 3 | ||
Total | 3 | 7 | 42.9 | ||
Capra aegagrus hircus (Domestic goat) | Absheron, Shabran, Samukh districts | 14 | 57 | 24.5 | Gaibova Iskenderova (2012) |
Ganja, Goygol district | 6 | 35 | 17.1 | ||
Dashkasan district | 5 | 35 | 14.3 | ||
Total | 25 | 127 | 19.7 | ||
Ovis aries (Domestic sheep) | Farms in Absheron | 139 | 612 | 22.7 | Musaev et al. (1996) |
Absheron, Shabran, Samux | 16 | 220 | 7.3 | Gaibova Iskenderova (2012) | |
Ganca, Goygol district | 35 | 58 | 60.3 | ||
Dashkasan district | 30 | 57 | 52.6 | ||
Gobustan district | 48 | 143 | 33.6 | ||
Balakan, Gakh, Zagatala districts | 355 | 733 | 48.4 | Gaibova Iskenderova (2014) | |
Total | 623 | 1,823 | 34.2 | ||
Bos taurus (Cow) | Farms in Absheron | 366 | 1,736 | 21.1 | Musaev et al. (1996) |
Absheron, Shabran, Samukh | 25 | 105 | 24.0 | Gaibova Iskenderova (2012) | |
Ganja, Goygol district | 10 | 56 | 17.9 | ||
Dashkasan district | 10 | 55 | 18.2 | ||
Gobustan district | 93 | 179 | 51.9 | Gaibova Iskenderova (2014) | |
Balakan, Gakh, Zagatala districts | 275 | 464 | 59.3 | ||
Total | 779 | 2,595 | 30.02 | ||
Bubalus bubalis (Buffalo) | Absheron, Shabran Samukh | 0 | 3 | Gaibova Iskenderova (2012) | |
Ganja, Goygol district | 15 | 70 | 21.4 | ||
Dashkasan district | 15 | 75 | 20.0 | ||
Balakan, Gakh, Zagatala districts | 105 | 170 | 61.8 | Gaibova Iskenderova (2014) | |
Total | 135 | 318 | 42.5 | ||
Bos taurus indicus Zebu (Indicine cattle) | Absheron, Shabran, Samukh | 7 | 15 | 46.7 | Gaibova Iskenderova (2012) |
Dashkasan district | 7 | 15 | 46.7 | ||
Total | 14 | 30 | 46.7 | ||
Camelus bactrianus (Bactrian camel) | Farms in Salyan district | 65 | 182 | 35.7 | Gaibova et al. (2011) |
Total | 2,591 | 8,374 | 30.9 |
Host name . | Geographic location . | n positive . | n total . | % . | References . |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Rattus norvegicus (Brown rat) | Gakh | 8 | 11 | 72.7 | Gurbanova Mamedova (2013) |
Absheron, Gobustan | 23 | 54 | 42.6 | Gurbanova (2015) | |
Balakan, Zagatala districts | 4 | 9 | 44.4 | Gaibova et al. (2017a) | |
Mus musculus (Hause mouse) | Absheron, Gobustan | 26 | 107 | 24.5 | Gurbanova (2015) |
Balakan, Gakh, Zagatala districts | 13 | 21 | 62.0 | Gaibova et al. (2017a) | |
Meriones libycus (Libyan jird) | Absheron, Gobustan | 38 | 123 | 30.9 | Gurbanova (2015) |
Total | 112 | 325 | 34.5 | ||
Canis lupus familiaris (Dog) | Balakan, Gakh, Zagatala districts | 14 | 56 | 25 | Gaibova et al. (2017a) |
Félis silvéstris cátus (Cat) | Balakan, Gakh, Zagatala districts | 17 | 54 | 31.5 | |
Total | 31 | 110 | 28.2 | ||
Sus scrofa domesticus (Domestic pig) | Pig farms in Absheron | 201 | 1,078 | 18.6 | Musaev et al. (1996) |
Pig farms in Absheron | 339 | 874 | 39.0 | Haciyeva Ahmadov (2016) | |
Pig farms in Shamakhi | 94 | 393 | 24.0 | ||
Pig farms in Khudat | 83 | 195 | 42.5 | ||
Pig farms in Ismayilli | 43 | 220 | 19.5 | ||
Pig farms in Salyan | 44 | 97 | 45.3 | ||
Total | 804 | 2,857 | 28.1 | ||
Equus ferus caballus (Horse) | Balakan, Qakh, Zaqatala districts | 2 | 4 | Gaibova et al. (2017a) | |
Equus africanus asinus (Donkey) | Balakan, Qakh, Zaqatala districts | 1 | 3 | ||
Total | 3 | 7 | 42.9 | ||
Capra aegagrus hircus (Domestic goat) | Absheron, Shabran, Samukh districts | 14 | 57 | 24.5 | Gaibova Iskenderova (2012) |
Ganja, Goygol district | 6 | 35 | 17.1 | ||
Dashkasan district | 5 | 35 | 14.3 | ||
Total | 25 | 127 | 19.7 | ||
Ovis aries (Domestic sheep) | Farms in Absheron | 139 | 612 | 22.7 | Musaev et al. (1996) |
Absheron, Shabran, Samux | 16 | 220 | 7.3 | Gaibova Iskenderova (2012) | |
Ganca, Goygol district | 35 | 58 | 60.3 | ||
Dashkasan district | 30 | 57 | 52.6 | ||
Gobustan district | 48 | 143 | 33.6 | ||
Balakan, Gakh, Zagatala districts | 355 | 733 | 48.4 | Gaibova Iskenderova (2014) | |
Total | 623 | 1,823 | 34.2 | ||
Bos taurus (Cow) | Farms in Absheron | 366 | 1,736 | 21.1 | Musaev et al. (1996) |
Absheron, Shabran, Samukh | 25 | 105 | 24.0 | Gaibova Iskenderova (2012) | |
Ganja, Goygol district | 10 | 56 | 17.9 | ||
Dashkasan district | 10 | 55 | 18.2 | ||
Gobustan district | 93 | 179 | 51.9 | Gaibova Iskenderova (2014) | |
Balakan, Gakh, Zagatala districts | 275 | 464 | 59.3 | ||
Total | 779 | 2,595 | 30.02 | ||
Bubalus bubalis (Buffalo) | Absheron, Shabran Samukh | 0 | 3 | Gaibova Iskenderova (2012) | |
Ganja, Goygol district | 15 | 70 | 21.4 | ||
Dashkasan district | 15 | 75 | 20.0 | ||
Balakan, Gakh, Zagatala districts | 105 | 170 | 61.8 | Gaibova Iskenderova (2014) | |
Total | 135 | 318 | 42.5 | ||
Bos taurus indicus Zebu (Indicine cattle) | Absheron, Shabran, Samukh | 7 | 15 | 46.7 | Gaibova Iskenderova (2012) |
Dashkasan district | 7 | 15 | 46.7 | ||
Total | 14 | 30 | 46.7 | ||
Camelus bactrianus (Bactrian camel) | Farms in Salyan district | 65 | 182 | 35.7 | Gaibova et al. (2011) |
Total | 2,591 | 8,374 | 30.9 |
Cryptosporidium infection in amphibians and reptilians
Relatively little is known about Cryptosporidium in amphibians, and currently, the only accepted species is Cryptosporidium fragile, which was described from the stomach of naturally infected black-spined toads (Duttaphrynus melanostictus) from the Malay peninsula in Southeast Asia (Jirku et al. 2008; Table 1).
The first report of Cryptosporidium oocysts in amphibians from Azerbaijan was in 2010. Cryptosporidium oocysts were found in the feces of all examined amphibian species except for European tree frogs (Table 3). We found that the morphometric characteristics of Cryptosporidium oocysts from Bufo verrucomsissimus are similar to those of the only valid amphibian Cryptosporidium species, C. fragile. These oocysts had an average size of 6.31 ± 0.01 × 5.01 ± 0.01 μm. In general, all the oocysts had an elongated oval shape, with a length/width ratio of 1.24. The prevalence of Cryptosporidium in the Absheron peninsula and Lankaran lowland was higher than the mountainous regions (Mamedova 2010).
The first report of Cryptosporidium in tortoise described oocyst detection using microscopy in the feces of an Indian star tortoise, Geochelone elegans (Schoepff 1795), which is kept in a zoo in the USA (Heuschele et al. 1986). Cryptosporidium ducismarci has been reported in several species of tortoises, snakes, and lizards (Traversa 2010). C. testudinis is a parasite of the tortoise, and its oocysts are significantly larger than those of C. ducismarci, allowing these two species to be distinguished microscopically (Ježková et al. 2016).
In the years from 2008 to 2019, a total of 104 tortoise and turtles (3 species: Emys orbicularis (European pond turtle), Mauremys caspica (East Caspian turtle), and Testudo graeca (Greek tortoise)) were examined for the presence of Cryptosporidium and other gastrointestinal parasites from Azerbaijan (Table 4).
Fifty-eight of them (55.8%) were infected with Cryptosporidium oocysts. The Cryptosporidium oocysts from Testudo graeca specimens caught in the territory of Absheron peninsula and in the territory Gakh district were morphologically compared. Oocysts from the territory of Absheron peninsula measured 5.5 ± 0.1 × 4.9 ± 0.01 μm and had a length/width index of 1.12 ± 0.03, and the oocysts obtained from the territory Gakh district were similar in size and measured 5.2 ± 0.4 × 4.02 ± 0.34 μm, with an index of 1.1 ± 0.03. The oocysts isolated from the Testudo graeca specimens were morphologically similar to C. ducismarci that is described in the literature. It was the first time that C. ducismarci was found in a Greek tortoise (T. graeca). Reptiles caught in the territory of the Absheron peninsula showed a higher prevalence (100%) than reptiles caught in the mountainous territory (50%) (Gaibova & Mamedova in press).
Cryptosporidium serpentis (Levine 1980) and C. varanii (syn. Cryptosporidium saurophilum) are the only valid species associated with reptile reservoirs (Ordo: Squamata) (Pavlásek et al. 1995; Pavlasek & Ryan 2008; Plutzer & Karanis 2009; Table 1).
A total of 160 specimens belonging to 18 species of ordo Squamata were examined for Cryptosporidium (Gaibova & Mamedova in press). Cryptosporidium oocysts were found in the feces of 114 reptiles from 7 species (Table 4).
Cryptosporidium oocysts that infected the Caucasian agama (Paralaudakia caucasia) (oocysts were 6.4 ± 0.2 by 5.6 ± 0.1 μm, a length/width index of 1.2 ± 0.02) and the Steppe-runner (Eremias arguta) (oocysts were 6.4 ± 0.2 by 4.7 ± 0.1 μm, a length/width index of 1.4 ± 0.1) had morphological characteristics related to C. serpentis. Oocysts from the feces of a naturally infected Spotted whip snake (Hemоrrhois ravergieri) and Dice snake (Natrix tessellate) measured 4.7 ± 0.1 × 4.4 ± 0.1 μm, with a length/width ratio of 1.07 ± 0.02 and 4.9 ± 0.1 × 4.8 ± 0.2 μm, and a length/width ratio of 1.07 ± 0.02, respectively. The authors reported that these oocysts were morphologically indistinguishable from those of C. varanii. For the first time, the Caucasian agama (Paralaudakia caucasia) and Steppe-runner (Eremias arguta) have been identified as the host of C. serpentis; and the Spotted whip snake (Hemоrrhois ravergieri) and Dice snake (Natrix tessellate) for C. varanii. Reptiles caught from the territory of Absheron and Gobustan showed a higher prevalence of Cryptosporidium than other Azerbaijan regions (Gaibova & Mamedova in press).
Cryptosporidium infection in birds
Cryptosporidiosis is one of the main protozoan infections among birds. Cryptosporidium species have been reported in more than 30 avian species worldwide (Sreter & Varga 2000). The first description of Cryptosporidium infection among birds (chicken) was reported by Tyzzer (1929). In 1955, a new species namely C. melagridis was reported to cause illness and death in young turkeys (Slavin 1955). Later, cryptosporidiosis was diagnosed among domestic geese (Anser anser) (Proctor & Kemp 1974) and broiler chickens (Fletcher et al. 1975). Current et al. (1986) described the biological cycle of Cryptosporidium in domestic chickens and named its species, C. baileyi. The third valid species of this parasite in birds, C. galli, was described by Pavlásek (1999) from the proventriculi of chickens and later was revised by Ryan et al. (2003). To date, five species of Cryptosporidium (C.meleagridis, C. baileyi, C. galli, C. avium, and C. proventriculi) have been described in birds (Table 1).
Between 1987 and 2019, a total of 729 fecal samples from birds were collected from different regions in Azerbaijan. According to the microscopy results using Ziehl–Neelsen staining, Cryptosporidium oocysts were present in 27.2% of the samples. The first report of Cryptosporidium in birds from Azerbaijan was in 1998. A total of 654 bird fecal samples from four species were examined for the Cryptosporidium spp. infection during the 9-year study (1989–1998) from farms in the Absheron peninsula, where 185 of them (28.3%) were infected by Cryptosporidium oocysts. The extent of Cryptosporidium oocysts infection in chickens, pheasants, peacocks, and quails were 50.6% (135/269), 7.9% (16/203), 12.9% (8/62), and 21.7% (26/120), respectively (Musaev et al. 1998). The highest prevalence of Cryptosporidium was in chickens (50.6%) (Table 5).
Oocysts from the feces of chickens measured 5.3 × 4.6 μm and had a length/width ratio of 1.15, pheasants measured 4.4 × 3.9 μm and had a length/width ratio of 1.13, peacocks measured 4.7 × 4.15 μm and had a length/width ratio of 1.3, and quails measured 5.14 × 4.8 μm and had a length/width ratio of 1.07. The two Cryptosporidium species (C. meleagridis and C. baileyi) that were detected in bird fecal smears from the study areas in Azerbaijan were morphologically similar to the oocysts from the same bird species that were detected in previous studies (Zha & Jiang 1994; Fujino 1996; Ryan et al. 2003).
Cryptosporidium infection in mammals
Mammals represent the largest group of animals known to be infected with Cryptosporidium spp. Cryptosporidium infections have been reported in at least 155 mammalian species (O'Donogue 1995; Fayer et al. 1997; Fayer & Xiao 2007). Wild animals seem to be involved in the epidemiology of most zoonoses and serve as major reservoirs for the transmission to domestic animals and humans (Kruse et al. 2004). C. muris, C. tyzzeri, C. proliferans, C. apodemi, C. ditrichi, C. occultus, C. alticolis, C. macroti, C. ubiquitum, and C. tyzzeri are known parasites of rodents (Table 1).
Three-hundred and twenty-five rodents from three species from the Azerbaijan territories were examined for Cryptosporidium oocysts and 112 (34.5%) of them were infected (Table 6). Oocysts appeared as round or ellipsoid formations. Oval oocysts measuring 5.06 × 4.0 μm, whereas ellipsoidal oocysts measured 7.50 × 5.50 μm. In Azerbaijan, three species of Cryptosporidium, such as C. muris, C. parvum, and C. ubiquitum, from rodents have been reported (Gurbanova & Mamedova 2013; Gurbanova 2015; Gaibova et al. 2017b).
Cryptosporidium spp. were first reported in cats in Japan (Iseki 1979), later it was called C. felis. The first evidence of cryptosporidiosis in dogs was reported by Tzipory & Campbell (1981), which was labeled as C. canis. After the examination of 110 dogs and cats caught from the mountainous regions in the Azerbaijan, Cryptosporidium oocysts were detected in 25% of dog and 31.5% of cat specimens (Table 6).
Cryptosporidium is a parasite responsible for widespread disease in livestock. The great majority of infections have been reported in domestic animals of economic importance, such as cattle, pigs, and sheep. Studies worldwide suggest that cattle are infected with four major Cryptosporidium species: C. parvum, C. bovis, C. andersoni, and C. ryanae (Xiao & Feng 2008; Xiao 2010; Ryan et al. 2014).
At least 8 Cryptosporidium species have been identified in sheep feces, including C. parvum, C. hominis, C. andersoni, C. suis, C. xiaoi, C. fayeri, C. ubiquitum, and C. scrofarum. C. xiaoi, C. ubiquitum, and C. parvum that had the highest prevalence. C. parvum, C. hominis, C. ubiquitum, and C. xiaoi have also been identified in goats. The main Cryptosporidium species identified in pigs worldwide are C. suis and C. scrofarum, although C. muris, C. tyzzeri, and C. parvum have also been reported in pigs (Ryan et al. 2014; Table 1).
The prevalence of Cryptosporidium in cattle, sheep, goats, buffaloes, and pigs has been studied in Azerbaijan. The first report was published in 1996 (Musaev et al. 1996). During a 32-year period from 1987 to 2019, a total of 7,750 (2,595 calves, 318 buffalo, 30 zebus, 1,823 sheep, 127 goats, and 2,857 pigs) stool samples were examined for Cryptosporidium (Table 4). Oocysts from the feces of a naturally infected large and young cattle and buffalo measured 5.0 × 4.7 (4.4–5.6 × 4.2–5.2) μm, with a length/width ratio of 1.05. We presented the data on relevant Cryptosporidium oocysts in feces from cattle, pigs, and sheep of different ages and the results of experimentally infected laboratory animals (rats, mice, rabbits, and coypus) with oocysts as well. Younger domestic animals showed a higher prevalence of oocyst shedding than older domestic animals. The Coccidia, from the genera Cryptosporidium, parasitize the older and younger cattle and buffalo in the Azerbaijan farm economies that were studied from 2005 to 2008, which were situated at different heights above the sea level (Gaibova & Iskenderova 2012). In the farm communities from the vertical belts, lowlands, foothills, and mountains, all reported that the younger cattle suffered higher consequences of Cryptosporidium infection than larger cattle and buffalo. The prevalence of Cryptosporidium in sheep was higher in the mountainous regions than in cows, goats, or buffalo that were raised in the lowland areas. Three species of Cryptosporidium were found in older and younger cattle and buffalo in Azerbaijan: C. andersoni, C. bovis, and C. hominis (Gaibova et al. 2017b).
In total, 182 Bactrian camels from Azerbaijan were investigated for Cryptosporidium, whereas 65/182 (35.7%) of them were infected with Cryptosporidium oocysts (Table 6), and younger camels showed a higher prevalence than the older camels. The highest prevalence of infection was recorded during the autumn season. Oocysts appeared either as round or oval formations, with a diameter 3.34–5.01 μm, nearly spherical (a length/width ratio of 1.02 ± 0.003) with a measurement of 5.0 ± 0.03 × 4.92 ± 0.03 μm, or even larger with a measurement of 7.4 ± 0.23 × 6.9 ± 0.17 μm, with a length/width ratio of 1.05 ± 0.003. Two species of Cryptosporidium, namely C. muris and C. andersoni, were noted in the camel study (Gaibova et al. 2011).
In the years 2009–2015, a total of 2,857 pigs were examined for the presence of Cryptosporidium, whereas 804 (28.1%) of them were infected with Cryptosporidium oocysts (Table 6). The extent of invasion with Cryptosporidium was higher in the lowland areas of the Absheron peninsula (39%) and in the Salyan region (45.3%). In the foothill area, Khudat had a 42.5% prevalence, and the mountains of Shamakhi 24% and Ismayilli 19.5%. Most of the detected Cryptosporidium oocysts were in the medium size range of 4.7–4.0 μm. These authors also obtained larger oocysts that measured 7.5 × 7.0 μm in the study. Two species of Cryptosporidium were found in pigs from Azerbaijan, C. muris and C. suis (Haciyeva & Ahmadov 2016).
Cryptosporidium infections in small ruminants may be a source for cryptosporidiosis in humans. In particular, sheep and goats are the known reservoirs of Cryptosporidium in cases of human infections (Koinari et al. 2014). Cryptosporidium outbreaks in school children have been associated with contact with lamb/goat kids as reported in the literature (Lange et al. 2014).
The diagnosis of cryptosporidiosis relies on the identification of oocysts in fecal samples released by the infected host. Stool specimens were processed using the modified acid-fast staining method (Ziehl–Neelsen (mZN)) and microscopically examined for Cryptosporidium oocysts. Thirteen species of Cryptosporidium (C. fragile, C. ducismarci, C. serpentis, C. varanii, C. baileyi, C. meleagridis, C. muris, C. parvum, C. ubiquitum, C. andersoni, C. bovis, C. hominis, and C. suis) have been reported from amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals that were identified from the studies conducted from 1987 to 2019 on the structural features of Cryptosporidium oocysts in Azerbaijan territory (Table 7). These species of Cryptosporidium were identified by microscopy and mZN staining from fecal samples of animal specimens collected in the studies. The prevalence of Cryptosporidium in Absheron peninsula and Lankaran lowland was higher than in the mountainous regions from these animals.
Cryptosporidium species reported from animals (wild, domestic, birds, reptiles, and amphibians) in Azerbaijan territory
Cryptosporidium species . | Hosts . | Dimension (μm) . | L/W (Length/Width) . |
---|---|---|---|
Cryptosporidium fragile | Bufo verricosissimus – Caucasian toad | 6.31 ± 0.01 × 5.01 ± 0.01 | 1.24 |
Cryptosporidium ducismarci | Testudo graeca – Greek tortoise | 5.5 ± 0.1 × 4.9 ± 0.01, 5.2 ± 0.4 × 4.02 ± 0.34 | 1.12 ± 0.03, 1.1 ± 0.03. |
Cryptosporidium serpentis | Paralaudakia caucasia – Caucasian agama | 6.4 ± 0.2 × 5.6 ± 0.1 | 1.2 ± 0.02 |
Eremias arguta – Steppe-runner | 6.4 ± 0.2 × 4.7 ± 0.1 | 1.4 ± 0.1 | |
Cryptosporidium varanii | Hemоrrhois ravergieri – Spotted whip snake | 4.7 ± 0.1 × 4.4 ± 0.1 | 1.07 ± 0.02 |
Natrix tessellate – Dice snake | 4.9 ± 0.1 × 4.8 ± 0.2 | 1.07 ± 0.02 | |
Cryptosporidium baileyi | Gallus domesticus (Chickens) | 5.3 × 4.6 | 1.15 |
Cryptosporidium meleagridis | Phasianus colchicus (Pheasants) | 4.4 × 3.9 | 1.13 |
Pavo cristatus (Peacocks) | 4.7 × 4.15 | 1.3 | |
Coturnix coturnix (Quails) | 5.14 × 4.8 | 1.07 | |
Cryptosporidium muris | Mus musculus – Hause mause | 7.73–7.91 × 5.50–7.73 | 1.29 |
Rattus norvegicus – Brown rat, | 7.53–7.85 × 6.40–7.85 | 1.04–1.17 | |
Meriones libycus – Libyan jird | 7.66–7.94 × 5.50–7.73 | 1.38–1.41 | |
Calves | 8.35 × 6.68 | 1.0 | |
Pigs | 7.5 × 7.05 | 1.02 | |
Cryptosporidium parvum | Mus musculus – Hause mause | 5.06 × 4.05 | 1.0 |
Rattus norvegicus – Brown rat | 5.01 × 3.89 | 1.0 | |
Camel | 5.0 ± 0.03 × 4.92 ± 0.03 | 1.02 ± 0.003 | |
Calves | 5.01 × 4.2 | 1.0 | |
Sheep | 5.85 × 5.01 | 1.0 | |
Human | 5.01 × 4.2 | 1.0 | |
Cryptosporidium ubiquitum | Mus musculus – Hause mause, Rattus norvegicus – Brown rat, Meriones libycus – Libyan jird | 5.01 × 4.35 | 1.08 |
Cryptosporidium andersoni | Camel | 7.4 ± 0.23 × 6.9 ± 0.17 | 1.05 ± 0.003 |
Sheep, goat | 6.3 ± 0.07 × 6.08 ± 0.08 | 1.03 | |
Calves, buffalo | 6.7–5.85 × 6.7–5.01 | 1.0–1.2 | |
Cryptosporidium bovis | Large and small cattle | 5.0 × 4.7 (4.4–5.6 × 4.2–5.2) | 1.05 |
Cryptosporidium hominis | Calves, buffalo, sheep, human | 4.35 ± 0.16 × 3.9 ± 0.14 (5.8–5.01 × 4.2–3.34) | 1.1 |
Cryptosporidium suis | Pigs | 4.7 × 4.0 | 1.03 |
Cryptosporidium species . | Hosts . | Dimension (μm) . | L/W (Length/Width) . |
---|---|---|---|
Cryptosporidium fragile | Bufo verricosissimus – Caucasian toad | 6.31 ± 0.01 × 5.01 ± 0.01 | 1.24 |
Cryptosporidium ducismarci | Testudo graeca – Greek tortoise | 5.5 ± 0.1 × 4.9 ± 0.01, 5.2 ± 0.4 × 4.02 ± 0.34 | 1.12 ± 0.03, 1.1 ± 0.03. |
Cryptosporidium serpentis | Paralaudakia caucasia – Caucasian agama | 6.4 ± 0.2 × 5.6 ± 0.1 | 1.2 ± 0.02 |
Eremias arguta – Steppe-runner | 6.4 ± 0.2 × 4.7 ± 0.1 | 1.4 ± 0.1 | |
Cryptosporidium varanii | Hemоrrhois ravergieri – Spotted whip snake | 4.7 ± 0.1 × 4.4 ± 0.1 | 1.07 ± 0.02 |
Natrix tessellate – Dice snake | 4.9 ± 0.1 × 4.8 ± 0.2 | 1.07 ± 0.02 | |
Cryptosporidium baileyi | Gallus domesticus (Chickens) | 5.3 × 4.6 | 1.15 |
Cryptosporidium meleagridis | Phasianus colchicus (Pheasants) | 4.4 × 3.9 | 1.13 |
Pavo cristatus (Peacocks) | 4.7 × 4.15 | 1.3 | |
Coturnix coturnix (Quails) | 5.14 × 4.8 | 1.07 | |
Cryptosporidium muris | Mus musculus – Hause mause | 7.73–7.91 × 5.50–7.73 | 1.29 |
Rattus norvegicus – Brown rat, | 7.53–7.85 × 6.40–7.85 | 1.04–1.17 | |
Meriones libycus – Libyan jird | 7.66–7.94 × 5.50–7.73 | 1.38–1.41 | |
Calves | 8.35 × 6.68 | 1.0 | |
Pigs | 7.5 × 7.05 | 1.02 | |
Cryptosporidium parvum | Mus musculus – Hause mause | 5.06 × 4.05 | 1.0 |
Rattus norvegicus – Brown rat | 5.01 × 3.89 | 1.0 | |
Camel | 5.0 ± 0.03 × 4.92 ± 0.03 | 1.02 ± 0.003 | |
Calves | 5.01 × 4.2 | 1.0 | |
Sheep | 5.85 × 5.01 | 1.0 | |
Human | 5.01 × 4.2 | 1.0 | |
Cryptosporidium ubiquitum | Mus musculus – Hause mause, Rattus norvegicus – Brown rat, Meriones libycus – Libyan jird | 5.01 × 4.35 | 1.08 |
Cryptosporidium andersoni | Camel | 7.4 ± 0.23 × 6.9 ± 0.17 | 1.05 ± 0.003 |
Sheep, goat | 6.3 ± 0.07 × 6.08 ± 0.08 | 1.03 | |
Calves, buffalo | 6.7–5.85 × 6.7–5.01 | 1.0–1.2 | |
Cryptosporidium bovis | Large and small cattle | 5.0 × 4.7 (4.4–5.6 × 4.2–5.2) | 1.05 |
Cryptosporidium hominis | Calves, buffalo, sheep, human | 4.35 ± 0.16 × 3.9 ± 0.14 (5.8–5.01 × 4.2–3.34) | 1.1 |
Cryptosporidium suis | Pigs | 4.7 × 4.0 | 1.03 |
These investigations confirmed that Cryptosporidium spp. are common parasites of wild and domestic animals, birds, reptiles, and amphibians in Azerbaijan. The prevalence of Cryptosporidium infection was higher in the rural than the urban areas of Azerbaijan. Additional investigations are in progress to further evaluate and estimate the widespread prevalence and distribution of this pathogen throughout Azerbaijan. There is a significant cryptosporidiosis risk for animals and humans from contaminated fecal material in the water and food supply. A unified public health policy needs to be implemented to protect the susceptible human and animal populations.
CONCLUSION
The present review has shown that there is a high prevalence of Cryptosporidium spp. (more than 30%) in the areas studied in Azerbaijan. The studies of Cryptosporidium infection in animals and livestock from different regions of Azerbaijan have revealed the following distribution pattern: the highest prevalence of infection was recorded in the lowland areas and the lowest prevalence was recorded in the mountainous regions. The highest rate of infection with Cryptosporidium was found in reptiles and amphibians and other terrestrial animals from the Absheron peninsula and Gobustan reserve. The Absheron peninsula is the most urbanized territory of the Republic of Azerbaijan, where Cryptosporidium transmission from reptile and amphibian reservoirs could have a negative impact on human and animal health.
The review has shown that Cryptosporidium spp. is a common parasite of animals in Azerbaijan. Herein, 13 species of Cryptosporidium from amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals have been identified based on the structural features of Cryptosporidium oocysts from this country.
Cryptosporidium species have been determined based on a comparative analysis of morphometric parameters of oocysts found in stool specimens that are consistent with previously described species of Coccidia. The morphological features of Cryptosporidium oocysts have been essential for Cryptosporidium species identification. However, further lifecycle studies and DNA analyses are recommended to complement the morphometric characteristics of Cryptosporidium found in Azerbaijan. These studies will be key to the understanding of Cryptosporidium epidemiology and transmission in domestic and wild animals, natural environment, and humans living in Azerbaijan.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We acknowledge Chad Schou, University of Nicosia Medical School, Cyprus, for the time and effort devoted to improving the linguistic quality of this review.
DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT
All relevant data are included in the paper or its Supplementary Information.