This study evaluated the biological and physicochemical parameters of the Oda River, including the detection of heavy metals. To achieve this purpose, a quantitative experimental research design was employed. Twenty-four water samples were taken along the Oda River from Obeng ne Obeng, Abuakwaa, and Odaso communities. The samples were analysed in a laboratory, and the results were compared to the irrigation water quality standards from the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO). The study found that the concentration of turbidity and total suspended solids exceeded the recommended standards of FAO, while the river's pH, electrical conductivity, and total dissolved solids concentrations were within permissible boundaries. Lead, cadmium, mercury, arsenic, and fluoride were present at concentrations lower than the recommended guidelines, whereas copper and cyanide were not discovered. However, iron concentrations exceeded the FAO guidelines. Escherichia coli concentrations in the Obeng ne Obeng were lower than the FAO irrigation standards but were higher in the Abuakwaa and Odaso. The Pearson correlation coefficient highlighted significant correlations between the physicochemical parameters. This paper concludes that unregulated mining activities may endanger vital water resources for irrigation, public health, food safety, ecosystems, and livelihoods.

  • Both the biological and physicochemical attributes of the Oda River were assessed.

  • The quantity of heavy metals in the river was identified.

  • E. coli and faecal coliform bacteria were examined to emphasise microbial safety.

  • The Pearson correlation coefficient explored the relationships between physicochemical parameters.

  • The study informs and improves policies on the effects of illegal mining on freshwater bodies.

Globally, irrigated agriculture holds promise for food security and poverty reduction because it provides about 40% of global crop production (Siebert et al. 2005). However, unlawful mining operations appear to pose a threat to irrigated agriculture and public health because these illegal operations contaminate water sources and expose crops and vegetables to detrimental heavy metals, jeopardising food security and public health (Obiri-Yeboah et al. 2021; Anjum & Rana 2023). Polluted water from various origins, including agriculture, industries, and human settlements, further affects irrigation water quality, which may lead to diminished crop yields and food safety and public health concerns (Haruna et al. 2022; Irfeey et al. 2023; Ashie et al. 2024). For instance, tainted water utilised for irrigation can introduce contaminants such as pathogens, pesticides, and heavy metals into the food system, posing health hazards to consumers (Linderhof et al. 2021).

Literature suggests that in the Amazon region, illicit gold mining activities have led to mercury discharge into rivers and streams (Swenson et al. 2011). This situation has contaminated water sources used for irrigation and fishing, imperilling the food security and the health of indigenous communities and local populations (Swenson et al. 2011). In Romania, unlawful cyanide spills from gold mining operations have tainted major rivers, such as the Tisza and Danube, causing widespread detriment to aquatic ecosystems and threatening the livelihoods of farmers and fishermen (Macklin et al. 2003).

In Africa, illegal mining and water contamination have adversely impacted agricultural practices, food security, and public health. For example, in Northern Nigeria, mining operations have negatively affected irrigation farming through water body pollution and exposing crops to detrimental heavy metals, endangering food security and human health (Haruna et al. 2022). The African Copperbelt region, spanning the Democratic Republic of Congo and Zambia, experiences high metal adulteration in water bodies (Muimba-Kankolongo et al. 2021). In Ondo State, Nigeria, illegal oil mining activities have caused land and water defilement and have resulted in food poisoning, health issues, and displacement of farmers and fishermen. These illegal mining activities have impacted agricultural productivity and food security (Asani & Akinyode 2022).

In Ghana, illegal gold mining activities, known as ‘galamsey’, are characterised by unregulated excavation, chemical usage, and improper waste disposal (Tom-Dery et al. 2012). Consequently, illegal mining activities in Ghana have contaminated water bodies with heavy metals and other toxic substances, rendering them unsuitable for irrigation and livestock watering (Hilson 2002). This situation has contributed to diminished crop yields, food insecurity, and poor health, particularly in rural communities that heavily rely on subsistence farming.

Illegal small-scale gold mining in Ghana is rife in the Ashanti, Brong Ahafo, Eastern, Central, and Western regions, which has led to lower food productivity, higher food prices, and increased food import dependence, posing a threat to food security (Gilbert 2022). According to Adjei et al. (2022), mineral exploitation has led to a decline in the volume and magnitude of the nation's water reserves. Illegal miners use mining techniques that disregard environmental preservation, resulting in the degradation of water resources throughout Ghana. These water bodies have become contaminated with heavy metals, including cyanide (CN) and mercury (Hg), making them unsuitable for irrigation (Adjei et al. 2022). Darko et al. (2023) assert that illegal mining in the Western Region of Ghana has led to high concentrations of hazardous heavy metallic elements in surface water, including Hg and lead (Pb). These harmful metallic elements pose a threat to individual and community well-being.

The Ashanti Region is one of the hotspots for illegal mining activities in Ghana, endangering the quality of river water in the region (Obiri et al. 2016). Kusi-Ampofo & Boachie-Yiadom (2012) report that farmers and community members in the Ashanti Region who previously relied on untreated water from rivers and streams for irrigation farming are no longer able to do so due to their high turbidity and contamination with debris from illegal mining and chemical constituents. Furthermore, an analysis of samples of river water in the Asante Akim Central Municipality in the Ashanti Region revealed high concentrations of several physicochemical attributes, comprising total dissolved solids (TDS), electrical conductivity (EC), turbidity, and pH, as well as toxic elements including Hg and Pb (Nukpezah et al. 2017). Nukpezah et al. (2017) further found that Hg, cadmium (Cd), and turbidity concentrations surpassed the thresholds recommended by the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) for the quality of river water for irrigation purposes. Amankwah (2013) confirmed that illegal mining activities have led to significant elevations in water parameters such as turbidity, pH values, and EC in the Ashanti Region, which may alter the water quality and render it unsuitable for irrigation.

The Oda River supplies water to local communities and supports agricultural activities within the Amansie Central District in the Ashanti Region of Ghana (Danquah et al. 2017). Yet the river and its environs have become a prime target for galamsey operations (Ofosu & Sarpong 2022). Despite the importance of the Oda River in providing water for domestic and agricultural activities, little is known about its water quality following illegal mining operations in the river's catchment area. Even though some previous research has explored the eco-friendly ramifications of unlawful mineral extraction activities within Ghana (Boateng et al. 2014), there has been limited research on the suitability of the Oda River quality for agricultural activities and human well-being. In particular, there is a lack of systematic evidence on the concentrations of physicochemical, biological parameters, and heavy metals in the Oda River. Therefore, this study assessed the concentration of the physicochemical and biological parameters and heavy metals in the Oda River and their impacts on irrigation activities, food safety, and public health. Understanding the concentrations and magnitudes of these parameters is of critical policy relevance in order to capacitate district-level authorities, local stakeholders, and national-level policymakers to appropriately collaborate to identify and address the threats to the quality of water in the Oda River. Addressing the threats to water quality is consistent with Ghana's revised National Water Policy and Sustainable Development Goal Six, both of which seek, among other things, to ensure available water resources, and enable equitable access to sustainable, safely managed, and affordable water, and sanitation for all (United Nations (UN) Water 2018; Ministry of Sanitation & Water Resources 2024). In the ensuing section, the research methods of the study are presented.

Setting of investigation

This investigation was conducted in the Amansie central administrative district in the Ashanti Region. The district shares a border with Upper Denkyira West, Bekwai Municipality, Obuasi Municipality, Amansie West, Adansi North, Amansie South, and Adansi South, covering roughly 852.6 km2. It falls within latitude 6°00 North to 6°30 North and longitude 1°00 West to 2°00 West (Figure 1). The district's 2021 population was 93,052 (Ghana Statistical Service 2024). This district was selected owing to the notable occurrence of small-scale mineral extraction enterprises utilising advanced methods for gold extraction.
Figure 1

Map of the Amansie Central District of Ghana.

Figure 1

Map of the Amansie Central District of Ghana.

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Research design

To accomplish the purpose of this investigation, a quantitative experimental research design was used to measure the following water quality parameters in the Oda River – total suspended solids (TSS), TDS, pH, turbidity, and EC. The prevalence of heavy metal pollutants such as fluoride (F), arsenic (As), Cd, CN, copper (Cu), iron (Fe), Hg, and Pb was measured in a laboratory. Biological parameters such as Escherichia coli and faecal coliform were also measured in a laboratory. The study findings were then compared with the irrigation water quality benchmarks recommended by the FAO to determine the water quality in the Oda River. In statistical tests, the Pearson correlation coefficient was used to examine the relationships among various physicochemical parameters (Milroy 2021), enabling a thorough analysis and offering valuable insights into their interdependencies in water quality.

Water sampling procedure

The water samples were taken from Obeng ne Obeng, Abuakwaa also known as Point Two, and Odaso communities along the Oda River where illegal mining is currently occurring in high volumes and magnitude (Figure 1). Twenty-four water samples were collected in 500 mL containers for laboratory analysis. Each container underwent a rigorous cleaning process – three rinses with distilled water – to eliminate potential contaminants. To maintain the samples' integrity, they were hermetically sealed with labels indicating their location and collection date and then stored in an ice chest with ice packs. The samples were labelled Obeng ne Obeng 1 and 2, Abuakwaa 1 and 2, and Odaso 1 and 2 for reference. Subsequently, the samples were transported to the water analytical laboratory in Accra for comprehensive examination.

Distribution of water samples

Six samples were transported to the microbiology analytical facility at the Ghana Standard Authority (GSA) in Accra, and the samples were placed in 500 mL bottles for biological analysis. Another six samples were dispatched to the Envaserv Research Consult in Accra to investigate F concentrations. The metallic analytical facility at the GSA also received six samples in 500 mL bottles to analyse the prevalence of substantial metal pollutants. The remaining 500 mL portion of the sampled water was allocated to the water laboratory at the GSA to examine the physicochemical properties.

Laboratory analysis

Following the prescribed methodological guidelines delineated by the American Public Health Association (APHA 1989), the laboratories conducted a comprehensive series of tests covering physicochemical, heavy metal, and biological parameters (APHA 1989). The Mettler Toledo pH meter was utilised to measure EC, TDS, and pH. Turbidity concentrations were determined using the HACH 2100 portable turbidimeter. The HACH ultraviolet spectrophotometer was employed to analyse the TSS and CN. Atomic absorption spectroscopy and inductively coupled plasma were utilised to measure heavy metal concentrations, such as Pb, Hg, Fe, Cu, As, and Cd. The F content was analysed using the Palin test Phot 14 method. The biological parameters, such as E. coli and faecal coliform, were analysed following the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) 9308-2 1990-10. Quality assurance and control were rigorously upheld by conducting instrument calibrations before each analysis. Each analysis procedure was reiterated in triplicate, and the resulting average values were documented.

Statistical analysis

Microsoft Excel version 2020 was utilised to compute the mean values for water parameters and compare them with the FAO irrigation water quality standards in a clear and concise tabular format. The Pearson correlation coefficient was calculated using R programming software.

This section presents and discusses the results of the study. Consistent with the purpose of the study and to ensure a clear and coherent discussion, we begin by presenting the results of the physicochemical parameters at the three research sites, as illustrated in Table 1.

Table 1

Physicochemical properties

Physicochemical parametersUnitObeng ne ObengAbuakwaa (Point Two)OdasoFAO guideline
pH – 7.30 6.75 7.03 6.5–8.4 
TDS mg/L 91.40 78.70 78.50 2,000 
TSS mg/L 438.00 1380.00 1360.00 50.0 (sprinkler)/10.0 (drip) 
Turbidity NTU 694.00 1755.00 1658.00 10.0 (sprinkler)/ 2.0 (drip) 
Conductivity μS/cm 181.30 153.00 157.50 3000.0 
Physicochemical parametersUnitObeng ne ObengAbuakwaa (Point Two)OdasoFAO guideline
pH – 7.30 6.75 7.03 6.5–8.4 
TDS mg/L 91.40 78.70 78.50 2,000 
TSS mg/L 438.00 1380.00 1360.00 50.0 (sprinkler)/10.0 (drip) 
Turbidity NTU 694.00 1755.00 1658.00 10.0 (sprinkler)/ 2.0 (drip) 
Conductivity μS/cm 181.30 153.00 157.50 3000.0 

pH

Determining whether water is acidic or basic is a function of its pH scale, which is crucial for evaluating the suitability of water for irrigation purposes. Extreme pH values in river water used for irrigation can alter soil pH values, negatively impacting plant nutrient availability. On the other hand, pH values below 6.5 cause metal equipment corrosion, while values above 8.4 cause clogging issues (Ayers & Westcot 1989). As illustrated in Table 1, the pH values of the Oda River are 7.30, 6.75, and 7.30 in the Obeng ne Obeng, Abuakwa, and Odaso communities, respectively. The FAO recommends a pH range of 6.5–8.4 for freshwater to be used for irrigation purposes. The pH values in our study are within the limits recommended by the FAO. Our findings suggest that illegal mining might not have affected the pH values of the Oda River. Our findings imply that based on the pH values, the Oda River water is suitable for irrigation applications. These findings are consistent with Quansah et al.’s. (2016) research in the Amansie West District, which found that the pH values were within the FAO's permissible limits and suitable for irrigation. Our findings further confirm Ashie et al. (2024), which reported that water pH values averaged 6.92 in the Wiwi River in Kumasi in the Ashanti Region.

Total dissolved solids

TDS is the magnitude of organic substances, inorganic saline compounds, and mineral constituents in water bodies. TDS is a crucial factor in assessing water quality for irrigation. High TDS concentrations can cause soil salinisation, which affects plant growth and productivity (Omer 2019). As Table 1 illustrates, the TDS concentrations in the Obeng ne Obeng (91.4 mg/L), Abuakwaa (78.7 mg/L), and Odaso (78.5 mg/L) of the Oda River fall below the limits set by FAO (2,000 mg/L). The finding suggests that the TDS concentrations of the Oda River are not affected by illegal mining operations; hence, the Oda River water is suitable for irrigation because using the water may not lead to soil salinisation. The low TDS concentrations can enhance the osmotic potential of crops and provide a fertile ground for smooth water uptake by plants (Ashie et al. 2024). Our observation is inconsistent with Nukpezah et al.’s (2017) study in the Asante Akim Central Municipality in Ghana, which found TDS concentrations exceeding the recommended FAO guidelines.

Total suspended solids

The TSS parameter encompasses particulate solid matter in water, including sediment, silt, and organic matter. Elevated TSS concentrations can cause water to appear cloudy and harm water quality for irrigation (DataStream 2021a). As detailed in Table 1, the concentrations of TSS in the Oda River are high in all three communities – Obeng ne Obeng (438 mg/L), Abuakwaa (1,380 mg/L), and Odaso (1,360 mg/L) – relative to the water quality guidelines set by the FAO: 50 mg/L for sprinkler-based irrigation systems and 10.0 mg/L for drip irrigation due to illegal mining. These high TSS concentrations within the Oda River may lead to blockages in irrigation systems, reduced water penetration in soil, and hindered root development and plant growth. These findings align with Nukpezah et al.’s (2017) research in the Asante Akim Central Municipality, which discovered that TSS concentrations exceeded the FAO guidelines.

Turbidity

Turbidity refers to the cloudiness or haziness of water due to suspended particles. Elevated turbidity concentrations can reduce water clarity (DataStream 2021b). In Table 1, the turbidity concentrations in the Oda River in Obeng ne Obeng (694 nephelometric turbidity units (NTU)), Abuakwaa (1,755 NTU), and Odaso (1,658 NTU) all surpassed the FAO's recommended concentrations of 10.0 NTU for sprinkler irrigation and 2.0 NTU for drip irrigation. The high turbidity concentrations of the Oda River water are associated with illegal mining activities, which have made the river lose its transparency. The elevated turbidity concentrations have the potential to cause blockages in irrigation systems. This finding aligns with research by Amankwah (2013), which revealed that illicit mineral extraction endeavours precipitated significant increases in turbidity. This resulted in a decrease in the amount of light reaching aquatic plants that require sunlight for photosynthesis. Our findings are logical and consistent because high TSS concentrations affect the turbidity concentrations of rivers. Our findings corroborate Douti et al.’s (2021) study on the quality of Vea irrigation water in the Upper East Region of Ghana, which found very high turbidity concentrations – 17 times higher than the recommended standards.

Electrical conductivity

The EC of water determines its capacity to facilitate the conduction of electric currents, which is straightforwardly proportional to the magnitude of ions dissolved or salinities. Irrigation water with elevated EC can cause soil salinisation (DataStream 2021c). Based on the data from Table 1, the EC values ranged from 153 to 181.3 μS/cm. The Obeng ne Obeng, Abuakwaa, and Odaso values are 181, 153, and 157.5 μS/cm, respectively. These values fall below the limit approved by the FAO for irrigation water usage. Thus, utilising water from the Oda River for irrigation is unlikely to result in soil salinisation. Illegal mining activities did not affect the EC values of the Oda River. This finding supports the research conducted by Gyawu-Asante (2012), which found that surface water EC concentrations at Bibiani gold mining sites ranged from 451.67 to 774.72 μS/cm, still within the FAO's irrigation criteria.

Concentrations of heavy metal pollutants and their effects on soil, crops, and human health

Table 2 presents heavy metal pollutants and discusses their effects on soil, crops, and human health.

Table 2

Heavy metals

Heavy metalsUnitObeng ne ObengAbuakwaa (Point Two)OdasoFAO guidelines
CN mg/L Non-discovered Non-discovered Non-discovered 0.02 
Pb mg/L 0.01 0.01 0.004 5.0 
Cd mg/L 0.0003 0.0004 0.0001 0.01 
Hg mg/L 0.0004 0.001 0.0003 0.002 
Cu mg/L Non-discovered Non-discovered Non-discovered 0.2 
Fe mg/L 9.0 34.0 20.0 5.0 
As mg/L 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.1 
mg/L <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 1.0 
Heavy metalsUnitObeng ne ObengAbuakwaa (Point Two)OdasoFAO guidelines
CN mg/L Non-discovered Non-discovered Non-discovered 0.02 
Pb mg/L 0.01 0.01 0.004 5.0 
Cd mg/L 0.0003 0.0004 0.0001 0.01 
Hg mg/L 0.0004 0.001 0.0003 0.002 
Cu mg/L Non-discovered Non-discovered Non-discovered 0.2 
Fe mg/L 9.0 34.0 20.0 5.0 
As mg/L 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.1 
mg/L <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 1.0 

Total CN

Table 2 reveals that CN was not detected in any of the research sites of the Oda River. This finding is welcoming because it suggests that the Oda River may not exert a deleterious effect on soil characteristics if used for irrigation applications. This finding, however, contradicts Attiogbe et al.’s (2020), research, which found traces of CN in the Birim River.

Lead

Illegal mining activities introduce harmful heavy metals such as Pb into river water, which poses a serious risk to irrigation applications. When Pb accumulates in the soil and is absorbed by crops, it can lead to growth-related impediments and intellectual impairment in humans when consumed (Wani et al. 2015). The concentrations of Pb in the Oda River are safe for irrigation purposes and fall within the FAO water quality guidelines. As reported in Table 2, the concentrations of Pb in Obeng ne Obeng (0.01 mg/L), Abuakwaa (0.01 mg/L), and Odaso (0.004 mg/L) are all below the permissible threshold of (5.0 mg/L) in the FAO guidelines. These findings are consistent with Quansah et al.’s (2016) research in the Amansie West District, which also found Pb concentrations within the FAO limits.

Cadmium

Cd, a toxic heavy metal, is present in river water from mining operations and can accumulate in soil, contaminating crops and posing health risks like kidney damage and respiratory diseases to consumers (Genchi et al. 2020). However, as Table 2 shows, the Cd concentrations in the Oda River were lower than the recommended thresholds by the FAO for acceptable irrigation water quality guidelines. The quantified concentrations were recorded as 0.0003 mg/L in the Obeng ne Obeng, 0.0004 mg/L in the Abuakwaa, as well as 0.0001 mg/L in the Odaso. The Cd concentrations may be attributed to illegal mining in and around the Oda River. These results are similar to Quansah et al.’s (2016) research in the Amansie West District, which found Cd concentrations within the allowable FAO limits. It is important to note that even though the Cd concentrations reported in this study are low, Cd is toxic to plants at low concentrations and can adversely affect soil microbial activity, nutrient cycling, and soil fertility, which may lead to reduced growth and yield (Ashie et al. 2024).

Mercury

Methylmercury, a form of dangerous heavy metal in the form of Hg, can cause neurological symptoms like tremors, ataxia, neuropathy, and developmental issues in individuals who ingest crops contaminated with it, particularly for young children and fetuses (Soe et al. 2022). As delineated in Table 2, the Oda River exhibits Hg concentrations of 0.0004 mg/L in the Obeng ne Obeng, 0.001 mg/L in the Abuakwaa, and 0.0003 mg/L in the Odaso. The Hg concentrations are below the FAO's water quality guidelines for irrigation (0.002 mg/L). The presence of Hg in the Oda River is due to illegal mining. This finding contradicts Nukpezah et al. (2017) findings, which showed that Hg concentrations in irrigation water exceeded the FAO's permitted limits in the Asante Akim Central Municipality.

Copper

The prevalence of elevated concentrations of Cu in water sources designated for agricultural irrigation can exert a deleterious effect on the development and growth of plant life. Cu build-up in soil due to irrigation water may lead to soil contamination, which can negatively impact soil microorganisms and lead to microbial imbalances (Alengebawy et al. 2021) Table 2 illustrates that the water samples collected from the Obeng ne Obeng, Abuakwaa, and Odaso segments of the Oda River did not exhibit any detectable presence of Cu, suggesting that illegal mining activities on the Oda River may not be associated with Cu. This finding differs from the findings of Adams et al. (2014), which detected traces of Cu in water samples from the Tono Dam in the Upper East Region of Ghana, albeit in low quantities that did not affect the characteristics of water for irrigation applications.

Iron

Excessive amounts of Fe in agricultural irrigation can lead to various issues such as soil staining, soil plugging, and clogging of irrigation equipment (Obreza et al. 2009). High concentrations of Fe can affect aquatic ecosystems by altering water quality and sediment characteristics. Fish can accumulate excessive amounts of Fe in their tissues through ‘bioaccumulation,’ which can be harmful to both the fish's health and those who consume them (Cordeli (Săvescu) et al. 2023). The Oda River exhibited elevated concentrations of Fe contamination, ranging from 9.0 mg/L in the Obeng ne Obeng, 34.0 mg/L in the Abuakwaa, to 20.0 mg/L in the Odaso. The Fe concentrations reported in this current study are much higher than the FAO recommended limits for irrigation due to illicit mining activities on the Oda River. The high Fe concentrations reported in this study may discolour the leaves of some plants, especially vegetables such as cabbage (Ashie et al. 2024). Our results are consistent with Ashie et al.’s (2024) study, which found that Fe concentrations exceeded the FAO recommended limits for vegetable irrigation.

Arsenic

The presence of As in irrigation water allows plants, including their edible parts, to absorb AS in the soil over time (Ravenscroft et al. 2011). Consuming crops grown in As-contaminated soil poses a public health threat from As poisoning (Clair-Caliot et al. 2021). The data presented in Table 2 indicate that the concentrations of As in the Obeng ne Obeng (0.01 mg/L), Abuakwaa (0.01 mg/L), as well as Odaso (0.01 mg/L) segments of the Oda River are within the threshold (0.1 mg/L) recommended by the FAO for agricultural irrigation applications. The discovery of As in the Oda water is attributable to illegal mining. This finding corroborates with the results of Hadzi (2022) in Pristine areas in Ghana, which reported that the As concentrations of 0.003 mg/L in irrigation water were within the FAO's safe limits for water quality.

Fluoride

Excessive concentrations of F in irrigation water can result in leaf burn, stunted growth, yellowing, in plants, and human teeth, and decreased crop yields. Moreover, an accumulation of F in soil may occur over time (Wollaeger 2015). Fortunately, the concentration of F (0.01 mg/L) in the Oda River is lower than the FAO guidelines (1.0 mg/L) for irrigation at the three locations. This finding is consistent with the characteristic of water examination at the Mpaem Akwa Mines by Ofosu & Sarpong (2022), who found that the concentrations of F were within permissible thresholds.

Concentration of biological properties and their effects on soil and crops

Faecal coliforms

This study found the presence of faecal coliform bacteria in the Oda River with values ranging from 180 most probable number (MPN)/100 mL in the Obeng ne Obeng, 145 MPN/100 mL in the Abuakwaa, to 180 MPN/100 mL in the Odaso (Table 3). These results indicate that the water quality meets the irrigation standards set by the FAO, which are 1,000 MPN/100 mL. Faecal coliform bacteria in the Oda River may be attributed to poor hygiene conditions at the illegal mining sites. Even though these bacteria concentrations are currently within allowable limits, using the river for sprinkler irrigation may cause pathogens and bacteria to adhere to the plants' surfaces. These bacteria could likely increase because of the increasing illegal mining activities at the river's catchment area. When these pathogens and bacteria are left unchecked, consuming vegetables irrigated with contaminated faecal coliform bacteria may cause gastrointestinal infections. Our findings contradict those of Danquah (2010), who found that in the Aboabo River in Kumasi, faecal coliform counts of 300 × 104 MPN/100 mL were higher than the FAO guidelines.

Table 3

Biological properties

Biological parametersUnitObeng ne ObengAbuakwaa (Point Two)OdasoFAO guideline
Faecal coliforms MPN/100 mL 180 145 180 1,000 
E. coli MPN/100 mL 83 125 235 100 
Biological parametersUnitObeng ne ObengAbuakwaa (Point Two)OdasoFAO guideline
Faecal coliforms MPN/100 mL 180 145 180 1,000 
E. coli MPN/100 mL 83 125 235 100 

Escherichia coli

When irrigation water contains high concentrations of E. coli, it can pose a serious risk to plant contamination as the bacteria can adhere to plant surfaces. If this contaminated water is allowed to pool or stagnate, it can contaminate soil and introduce pathogens that may affect soil quality and crop safety (Ibekwe et al. 2004). The E. coli concentrations recorded in Obeng ne Obeng (83 MPN/100 mL) were lower than the FAO standard (100 MPN/100 mL). However, the concentrations of E. coli in the Abuakwaa (125 MPN/100 mL) and Odaso (235 MPN/100 mL) were significantly higher than the FAO standards as presented in Table 3. The high presence of E. coli in the Oda River may be attributed to the increasing activities of illegal miners. The implication here is that using the Oda River for irrigation may lead to microbial contamination, especially where the water is used to irrigate vegetables such as onions, cabbage, and tomatoes (Douti et al. 2021). The policy relevance of our findings is that local authorities and community stakeholders need to ensure that the water is treated before being used for irrigation. Regarding public health, our findings suggest that food, especially vegetables irrigated with this water, must be thoroughly washed, treated, or cooked before consumption. Our findings are consistent with the study by Douti et al. (2021), which found high concentrations of E. coli in the Vea Dam, and Yeleliere et al. (2018) who noted that nearly all surface water bodies in Ghana are adulterated by E. coli.

The relationship among the physicochemical parameters

In this section, we present the results of the Pearson correlation coefficients of the various physicochemical parameters and examine the relationships among them.

The data from Table 4 reveal significant correlations between various water quality parameters. pH exhibited a positive correlation between TDS (0.8538) and EC (0.9266), indicating that lower pH values are associated with lower TDS and EC concentrations. Conversely, pH also showed a negative correlation between TSS (−0.8700) and turbidity (−0.8999), suggesting that higher TSS and turbidity concentrations are linked with lower pH values (Saalidong et al. 2022).

Table 4

Pearson correlation coefficients of physicochemical parameters

pHTDSTSSTurbidityConductivityPbCdHgFeAsFaecal coliformsE. coli
pH 0.8537627 −0.8700397 −0.8998731 0.92657457 −0.0104967 −0.3372273 −0.6625524 −0.9982791 −0.6466828 0.871226 −0.257407 
TDS 0.8537627 −0.9994844 −0.9953659 0.9869017 0.51167191 0.20225153 −0.1756783 −0.8217614 −0.9492536 0.4882366 −0.7228821 
TSS −0.8700397 −0.9994844 0.9979402 −0.9915725 −0.483822 −0.1707034 0.2071958 0.83963352 0.938666 −0.5160053 0.7003241 
Turbidity −0.8998731 −0.9953659 0.9979402 −0.9978411 −0.4266821 −0.1071418 0.2695285 0.87274817 0.9146112 −0.5698938 0.6530885 
Conductivity 0.9265746 0.9869017 −0.9915725 −0.9978411 0.36636442 0.04161357 −0.3321911 −0.9029246 −0.886082 0.6226297 −0.6019441 
Pb −0.0104967 0.5116719 −0.483822 −0.4266821 0.36636442 0.94491118 0.7559289 0.06911635 −0.7559289 −0.5 −0.9635479 
Cd −0.3372273 0.2022515 −0.1707034 −0.1071418 0.04161357 0.94491118 0.9285714 0.39185288 −0.5 −0.7559289 −0.8228955 
Hg −0.6625524 −0.1756783 0.2071958 0.2695285 −0.3321911 0.75592895 0.92857143 0.70533519 −0.1428571 −0.9449112 −0.5532305 
Fe −0.9982791 −0.8217614 0.8396335 0.8727482 −0.9029246 0.06911635 0.39185288 0.7053352 0.6008411 −0.8985126 0.2002991 
As −0.6466828 −0.9492536 0.938666 0.9146112 −0.886082 −0.755929 −0.5 −0.1428571 0.60084108 −0.1889822 0.9035171 
Faecal coliforms 0.871226 0.4882366 −0.5160053 −0.5698938 0.6226297 −0.5 −0.755929 −0.9449112 −0.8985126 −0.1889822 0.2500811 
E. coli −0.257407 −0.7228821 0.7003241 0.6530885 −0.6019441 −0.9635479 −0.8228955 −0.5532305 0.20029912 0.9035171 0.2500811 
pHTDSTSSTurbidityConductivityPbCdHgFeAsFaecal coliformsE. coli
pH 0.8537627 −0.8700397 −0.8998731 0.92657457 −0.0104967 −0.3372273 −0.6625524 −0.9982791 −0.6466828 0.871226 −0.257407 
TDS 0.8537627 −0.9994844 −0.9953659 0.9869017 0.51167191 0.20225153 −0.1756783 −0.8217614 −0.9492536 0.4882366 −0.7228821 
TSS −0.8700397 −0.9994844 0.9979402 −0.9915725 −0.483822 −0.1707034 0.2071958 0.83963352 0.938666 −0.5160053 0.7003241 
Turbidity −0.8998731 −0.9953659 0.9979402 −0.9978411 −0.4266821 −0.1071418 0.2695285 0.87274817 0.9146112 −0.5698938 0.6530885 
Conductivity 0.9265746 0.9869017 −0.9915725 −0.9978411 0.36636442 0.04161357 −0.3321911 −0.9029246 −0.886082 0.6226297 −0.6019441 
Pb −0.0104967 0.5116719 −0.483822 −0.4266821 0.36636442 0.94491118 0.7559289 0.06911635 −0.7559289 −0.5 −0.9635479 
Cd −0.3372273 0.2022515 −0.1707034 −0.1071418 0.04161357 0.94491118 0.9285714 0.39185288 −0.5 −0.7559289 −0.8228955 
Hg −0.6625524 −0.1756783 0.2071958 0.2695285 −0.3321911 0.75592895 0.92857143 0.70533519 −0.1428571 −0.9449112 −0.5532305 
Fe −0.9982791 −0.8217614 0.8396335 0.8727482 −0.9029246 0.06911635 0.39185288 0.7053352 0.6008411 −0.8985126 0.2002991 
As −0.6466828 −0.9492536 0.938666 0.9146112 −0.886082 −0.755929 −0.5 −0.1428571 0.60084108 −0.1889822 0.9035171 
Faecal coliforms 0.871226 0.4882366 −0.5160053 −0.5698938 0.6226297 −0.5 −0.755929 −0.9449112 −0.8985126 −0.1889822 0.2500811 
E. coli −0.257407 −0.7228821 0.7003241 0.6530885 −0.6019441 −0.9635479 −0.8228955 −0.5532305 0.20029912 0.9035171 0.2500811 

The TDS exhibited a positive correlation with EC (0.9869), but a negative correlation with TSS (−0.9995) and turbidity (−0.9954), implying that low TDS concentrations are associated with high TSS and turbidity. TSS demonstrates a positive correlation with turbidity (0.9979), indicating that higher TSS values are connected with increased turbidity (Millar et al. 2016).

Turbidity shows a negative correlation with pH (−0.900) and conductivity (−0.997), implying that as turbidity increases, pH and EC decrease. EC has a robust positive correlation with TDS (0.9869), signifying that higher conductivity corresponds to higher TDS concentration. EC also has a strong negative correlation with TSS (−0.9916) and turbidity (−0.9978), indicating that lower EC values are associated with higher TSS and turbidity concentrations (Stutter et al. 2017)

Putting it all together, the policy implication of our study is that in terms of the physicochemical parameters, the TSS and turbidity concentrations were extremely high. The rest – pH values, TDS, and EC concentrations – were within the FAO recommended standards. In this respect, illegal mining activities have adversely affected the TSS and turbidity of the Oda River. Thus, lower pH values, TDS, and EC concentrations are generally acceptable for irrigation purposes, while elevated TSS and turbidity concentrations may not be suitable due to potential blockages and other complications (Bauder et al. 2014). Comprehending the associations between pH, TDS, TSS, turbidity, and EC can offer valuable perspectives into water quality, particle accumulation, and settling behaviour, which are critical for water treatment and management. The robust correlations between TDS and EC, TSS and turbidity, imply that these parameters can act as proxies for each another in certain scenarios (Nasrabadi et al. 2016), potentially streamlining water quality monitoring and analysis procedures.

Limitations of the study

The collection of water samples during the rainy season and the fact that samples were collected from one river limited the scope of this study. Samples from at least two rivers in different locations would enrich the comparative ability of the results. Nevertheless, the results provide a clear understanding of the effects of illegal mining on the physicochemical and biological parameters of the Oda River.

The research assessed the impact of illegal mining on the suitability of the Oda River water in Ghana for irrigation purposes and the implications for public health, drawing on the FAO standards. Intriguing results emerged from the study. With respect to TSS, turbidity, Fe, and E. coli parameters, the Oda River failed to meet FAO irrigation water quality guidelines as these parameters surpassed the FAO permissible limits due to illegal mining activities. The elevated TSS and turbidity concentrations may obstruct irrigation systems, while the increased Fe concentrations can degrade soil quality and inhibit plant growth. Importantly, the extremely high concentration of E. coli bacteria poses risks to crop safety and public health. The discovery of heavy metals such as Hg, Pb, As, and Cd and faecal coliform bacteria in the Oda River is due to illegal mining. Even though the concentrations of these toxic metals are below the FAO recommended standards, they can accumulate in the soil over time and be absorbed by crops when the Oda River is used for irrigation. This polluted water may affect soil quality and crops causing serious public health challenges.

Based on the preceding, the study concludes that illegal mining in the Oda River has resulted in poor quality of the Oda River. Therefore, using the Oda River for crop and vegetable irrigation could decrease agricultural productivity, increase food-borne diseases, and pose public health risks for households farming in the Oda River Basin. It is recommended that the government, local authorities, and community members collaborate to create public awareness of the harmful effects of illegal mining on water bodies. Water treatment technologies such as filtration and ozonation should be used to treat the Oda River water before it is used for irrigation purposes. The government and local authorities should collaborate to ensure that alternative water sources, such as sustainable groundwater wells, are constructed for irrigation farming to prevent food-borne diseases and increase agricultural productivity. Finally, consumers must thoroughly wash, cook, or treat vegetables irrigated with water from the Oda River before consumption to enhance public health safety.

The research received no external funding.

R. A. conceptualised the study and wrote, reviewed, and edited the article. K.A.A. supervised the study and wrote, reviewed, and edited the article.

All relevant data are included in the paper or its Supplementary Information.

The authors declare there is no conflict.

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