Bangladesh faces a growing number of issues, such as limited sources of potable water and health hazards that are either directly or indirectly linked to climate change. In total, 16 publications from 2007 to 2024 were manually screened for inclusion in this systematic review. The articles were divided into three categories: climate and water, climate and health, and climate, water, and health. Due to the climate change, 20 million individuals in Bangladesh have been suffering from water- and health-related illness. The results showed that among Bangladeshi vulnerable groups, cholera, infant diarrhea, pneumonia, dengue, malaria, mental illness, hypertension, cardiovascular disease, cerebrovascular disease, and an increase in communicable diseases like water-, vector-, and food-borne infections, along with malnutrition, are common. Further findings of the study include health risks, water-related risks, and difficulties in determining the consequences of climate change. This review study focuses on Bangladesh, a developing country, and the correlation between climate change and the dangers of water and health-related diseases. The findings of this study have substantial implications for risk assessment, water quality, climate change, and public health, especially in poor nations, as well as for policymakers and academicians in these fields.

  • Bangladesh ranks high among the world's most climate-vulnerable nations.

  • Climate threats make clean drinking water scarce following devastating climatic events, causing waterborne and vector-borne diseases.

  • Both human and mental health are severely impacted by the effects of climate change.

  • Climate change–water–health adaptation strategies for Bangladesh are presented.

The World Health Organization (WHO 2009) has identified climate change as a prominent health hazard in the 21st century. Bangladesh, a country with a substantial coastal population and fragile economy, faces a substantial risk from climate change (IPCC 2007). The nation's little variation in land elevation and its tropical weather conditions significantly enhance the probability of human and material casualties, including harm to agricultural production (Haque et al. 2018). The problem of fresh water scarcity in the coastal zone of Bangladesh has been made worse by the rise in sea levels as well as by the occurrence of storms. Bangladesh, on the other hand, is considered to be one of the most climate-vulnerable countries (Hasan & Chongbo 2020). This is mostly due to the fact that the country's position and topographic relief are rather low. It is estimated that waterborne pathogens and unclean drinking water are responsible for 80% of the illnesses that occur in underdeveloped nations (SDWF 2018). Rising sea levels, temperatures, salinity intrusion, storm surge, tropical cyclone frequency and intensity, regional climate unpredictability, and severe events like more catastrophic floods, droughts, and storms put Bangladesh at greater risk of human and economic disaster (Khan et al. 2011; Ashrafuzzamana & Furini 2019). Due to the above-said factors, the climate in Bangladesh is getting worse. Water has diverse and ever-changing effects on human health, which are impacted by elements like humidity, temperature, and precipitation. Due to the rise in waterborne illnesses and the decrease in water availability, both human health and economy of the country are affected. The ensuing improvement in the water quality in disease outbreak areas has an impact on both human health and economy. The connection between water quality and climate change – specifically, how the former affects water quality and illnesses associated to it – has not received much research.

Recently, academicians and the society have focused on health effects caused due to the climate change. Climate-related illnesses, early death, hunger, and mental health threats are rising including heat waves, flooding, food and water shortages, and infectious diseases (Cissé et al. 2022). According to Anik et al. (2023), vulnerable populations have a higher prevalence of cholera, newborn diarrhea, pneumonia, dengue, and malaria. Additionally, the current distribution and number of regional healthcare centers show that there is a shortage of potable water procedures and medical centers compared to demands. Ultimately, this investigation uncovered various methodologies that ensure the provision of clean drinking water, such as rainwater storage, pond sand filtration, and a reliable potable water distribution system. A study conducted by Ahmed et al. (2016) revealed that the rise in waterborne diseases such as hepatitis, cholera, typhoid, malaria, and dengue fever can be attributed to the disordered process of urbanization, industrialization, unsanitary circumstances, and inadequate water management. Climate-sensitive health risks disproportionately affect women, children, ethnic minorities, poor communities, migrants, or people who have been displaced, older populations, and people with pre-existing health conditions, according to the WHO (2021a). Due to their vulnerabilities, exposure pathways, and health system capability and resilience, these groups are more likely to suffer health repercussions. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is said to have developed an analytical framework that was utilized in order to study the connection between climate change and health outcomes, as stated by Cissé et al. (2022). An emphasis was placed on the roles that susceptibility, hazard, and exposure play within the framework.

There have been several systematic evaluations that have looked at how climate change and health disparities are related. The fragmented nature of policy analysis frameworks and the requirement for a thorough method to comprehend health equity in climate change plans are highlighted by Khanal et al. (2023). Ashrafuzzamana & Furini (2019) examined the primary effects of climate change on public health, starting with global issues and working their way down to local ones. They discovered that developing nations face significant challenges in terms of mitigation and adaptation, including issues related to human health. Jurgilevich et al. (2023) presented important insights into anticipatory adaptation by illuminating the mechanisms underlying the occurrence of direct, indirect, and delayed health impacts as well as the factors that either increase or decrease the severity of these impacts and explored that climate change can address multiple health risks and provide co-benefits for adaptation. Bad weather is becoming more common, lasting longer, and more intense as a result of climate change, according to research by Berry et al. (2010). The state of people's minds will be affected by these shifts. The research suggests that it may indirectly affect mental health by affecting communal wellness and physical health.

The importance of the United States' health care system's reaction to climate change is emphasized by Graham et al. (2019), particularly with regard to the management of air pollution, extreme weather events, and infectious illnesses of the United States. According to Khine & Langkulsen (2023), climate change plays a significant influence in not only exacerbating existing inequalities but also increasing the likelihood of diseases occurring among vulnerable people in South Africa. Scheelbeek et al. (2021) provide evidence from low- and middle-income nations, emphasizing the necessity for further information about the impact of climate change adaptation measures on public health. The effects of climate change on water resources and human health have been studied in Bangladesh by various researchers (Hunter et al. 2010; Habiba et al. 2011; Alauddin & Sarker 2014; Abedin et al. 2019; Ashrafuzzamana & Furini 2019; Ahmed et al. 2021; Hossain et al. 2021; Talukder et al. 2021). Nevertheless, the scientific literature is severely lacking in pieces of evidence pertaining to the interplay between water, climate, and human health. Moreover, to our knowledge, no research has examined the impact of climate change on Bangladesh's water resources, human health (both mental and physical), or the interconnections between these two factors. The objective of this systematic investigation is to create a comprehensive understanding of the impact of climate change on the water system and human health in Bangladesh. Furthermore, this study brings attention to some limitations in the current body of research. The research questions are (a) How does Bangladesh's water and health situation alter as a result of climate change? (b) What health and water challenges are posed by climate-related situations in Bangladesh? and (c) What adaption strategies are used in Bangladesh's climate-affected areas to safeguard residents' health and enhance the water quality? The document outlines several strategies for adaptation and mitigation that might be applied to address the upcoming problems. It also provides direction and suggestions for future scholars and legislators.

Description of the study area

Bangladesh experiences strong seasonal changes in rainfall, high temperatures, and humidity due to its subtropical monsoon climate. Bangladesh is divided into seven climatic sub-regions, as shown in Figure 1. These seven climatic sub-regions are as follows: North-Eastern (Sylhet), North-Eastern (Chittagong), North-Western (Rajshahi), Northern part of the North (Panchagarh), South-Western (Jessore), South-Central (Dhaka), and Western dry region (Bogra). Because of their vulnerability to storm surges, cyclones, sea-level rise, and salt intrusion, the northern and north-eastern regions are particularly vulnerable. Abrupt floods and erosion along riverbanks are common in the north-eastern regions of the Sylhet Division. In these areas, problems like crop loss and waterlogging occur during the monsoon season. Floods, droughts, and riverbank erosion are common in the northwest regions of the Rajshahi and Rangpur divisions. These natural disasters have a negative effect on agriculture and displace locals. According to Islam et al. (2022), the north-western, north-eastern, and south-central regions are prone to flooding and get significant amounts of precipitation.
Figure 1

Map showing climatic hotspots in Bangladesh (Source: Sarker et al. 2019).

Figure 1

Map showing climatic hotspots in Bangladesh (Source: Sarker et al. 2019).

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Search strategy

We conducted a thorough process of keyword identification in advance of our systematic literature evaluation, guided by a thorough examination of pertinent literature and discussions with subject-matter experts. The study placed a strong emphasis on reading every scientific item that could be found regarding the effects of climate change on human health and water quality, with a particular emphasis on Bangladesh. On the other hand, research, review articles, and book chapters that were published between the years 2007 and 2024 were included. These contributions were derived via a comprehensive search of related papers in databases such as PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar, as well as peer-reviewed journals. Using the concept that titles and abstracts clearly reflect the major themes and findings of research in accordance with PRISMA guidelines, the study searched for papers that were based on the fact that climate change has an effect on water and health impacts (Page et al. 2021). The systematic review focused exclusively on the terms ‘climate change’, ‘water’, and ‘health’ impact for Bangladesh in order to ensure transparency and comprehensiveness. A total of 1,760 publications were initially identified through the systematic search conducted in this study, and an additional 23 papers were discovered by searching different databases. A total of 1,690 papers were excluded after abstract screening, and an additional 93 articles were deleted based on title screening. Among the 1,597 records that were reviewed, 1,394 were excluded after considering the abstract. Out of the 203 complete publications analyzed in this study, 194 full-text articles were excluded for different reasons. These reasons included poor quality (96 articles), absence of primary data (29 articles), lack of intervention (14 articles), not aligning with the concept (38 articles), and conference papers (17 articles). Furthermore, the assessment of references yielded a total of seven articles that were included. Figure 2 displays the screening procedure.
Figure 2

Flow diagram illustrating the process of searching for completed articles for investigative purposes.

Figure 2

Flow diagram illustrating the process of searching for completed articles for investigative purposes.

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Study selection criteria

In the current studies, stringent inclusion and exclusion criteria are being used to investigate the influence of climate change on water and well-being. In addition, reports from the climatic vulnerable areas in Bangladesh were incorporated into the study. This was done in order to demonstrate the true effects that climate change has on water and health. A total of 16 articles have been considered for the systematic review of this paper (Table 1).

Table 1

Selected papers for the systematic review

1. Anik et al. (2023)  The impact of climate change on water resources and associated health risks in Bangladesh: A review, Water Security, Volume 18, 100133, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasec.2023.100133
2. Kirby & Mainuddin (2022)  The impact of climate change, population growth and development on sustainable water security in Bangladesh to 2100, Sci. Rep. 12, 22344, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-26807-6
3. Hossain et al. (2021)  Impact of climate change on human health: evidence from riverine island dwellers of Bangladesh. International Journal of Environmental Health Research, 32(11), 2359–2375. https://doi.org/10.1080/09603123.2021.1964447
4. Islam et al. (2020)  Emerging waterborne pathogens in the context of climate change: Vibrio cholerae as a case study. In Waterborne Pathogens; Butterworth-Heinemann: Oxford, UK, pp. 1–14. 
5. Hossain et al. (2020)  Climate change impacts on farmland value in Bangladesh, Ecological Indicators, Volume 112, 106181, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2020.106181
6. Abedin et al. (2019)  Climate Change, Water Scarcity, and Health Adaptation in Southwestern Coastal Bangladesh. Int J Disaster Risk Sci 10, 28–42 https://doi.org/10.1007/s13753-018-0211-8
7. Abdullah et al. (2019)  Effects of Climate Change and Maternal Morality: Perspective from Case Studies in the Rural Area of Bangladesh. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 16, 4594. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16234594
8. Ashrafuzzamana & Furini (2019)  Climate change and human health linkages in the context of globalization: an overview from global to southwestern coastal region of Bangladesh, Environ. Int. 127, 402–411, https://doi.org/.10.1016/j.envint.2019.03.020
9. Caminade et al. (2019)  Impact of recent and future climate change on vector-borne diseases. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1436, 157. 
10. Rahman et al. (2019)  Health consequences of climate change in Bangladesh: An overview of the evidence, knowledge gaps and challenges. WIREs Clim Change. e601. https://doi.org/10.1002/wcc.601
11. Alam et al. (2017)  Vulnerability to climatic change in riparian char and river-bank households in Bangladesh: Implication for policy, livelihoods and social development. Ecological Indicators, 72, 23–32. 
12. Kabir et al. (2016)  Climate change and health in Bangladesh: a baseline cross-sectional survey, Glob. Health Action 9 (1), 29609, https://doi.org/10.3402/gha.v9.29609
13. Rasheed et al. (2016)  Salt intake and health risk in climate change vulnerable coastal Bangladesh: What role do beliefs and practices play? PLoS ONE, 11, 0152783. 
14. Haque et al. (2013)  Health coping strategies of the people vulnerable to climate change in a resource-poor rural setting in Bangladesh. BMC Public Health, 13, 565. 
15. Dey et al. (2012)  Assessing environmental and health impact of drought in the Northwest Bangladesh. Journal of Environmental Science and Natural Resources, 4, 89–97. 
16. Islam et al. (2022)  Climate change, climatic extremes, and households' food consumption in Bangladesh: a longitudinal data analysis. Environ. Chall. 7:100495. doi: 10.1016/J.ENVC.2022.100495 
1. Anik et al. (2023)  The impact of climate change on water resources and associated health risks in Bangladesh: A review, Water Security, Volume 18, 100133, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasec.2023.100133
2. Kirby & Mainuddin (2022)  The impact of climate change, population growth and development on sustainable water security in Bangladesh to 2100, Sci. Rep. 12, 22344, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-26807-6
3. Hossain et al. (2021)  Impact of climate change on human health: evidence from riverine island dwellers of Bangladesh. International Journal of Environmental Health Research, 32(11), 2359–2375. https://doi.org/10.1080/09603123.2021.1964447
4. Islam et al. (2020)  Emerging waterborne pathogens in the context of climate change: Vibrio cholerae as a case study. In Waterborne Pathogens; Butterworth-Heinemann: Oxford, UK, pp. 1–14. 
5. Hossain et al. (2020)  Climate change impacts on farmland value in Bangladesh, Ecological Indicators, Volume 112, 106181, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2020.106181
6. Abedin et al. (2019)  Climate Change, Water Scarcity, and Health Adaptation in Southwestern Coastal Bangladesh. Int J Disaster Risk Sci 10, 28–42 https://doi.org/10.1007/s13753-018-0211-8
7. Abdullah et al. (2019)  Effects of Climate Change and Maternal Morality: Perspective from Case Studies in the Rural Area of Bangladesh. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 16, 4594. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16234594
8. Ashrafuzzamana & Furini (2019)  Climate change and human health linkages in the context of globalization: an overview from global to southwestern coastal region of Bangladesh, Environ. Int. 127, 402–411, https://doi.org/.10.1016/j.envint.2019.03.020
9. Caminade et al. (2019)  Impact of recent and future climate change on vector-borne diseases. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1436, 157. 
10. Rahman et al. (2019)  Health consequences of climate change in Bangladesh: An overview of the evidence, knowledge gaps and challenges. WIREs Clim Change. e601. https://doi.org/10.1002/wcc.601
11. Alam et al. (2017)  Vulnerability to climatic change in riparian char and river-bank households in Bangladesh: Implication for policy, livelihoods and social development. Ecological Indicators, 72, 23–32. 
12. Kabir et al. (2016)  Climate change and health in Bangladesh: a baseline cross-sectional survey, Glob. Health Action 9 (1), 29609, https://doi.org/10.3402/gha.v9.29609
13. Rasheed et al. (2016)  Salt intake and health risk in climate change vulnerable coastal Bangladesh: What role do beliefs and practices play? PLoS ONE, 11, 0152783. 
14. Haque et al. (2013)  Health coping strategies of the people vulnerable to climate change in a resource-poor rural setting in Bangladesh. BMC Public Health, 13, 565. 
15. Dey et al. (2012)  Assessing environmental and health impact of drought in the Northwest Bangladesh. Journal of Environmental Science and Natural Resources, 4, 89–97. 
16. Islam et al. (2022)  Climate change, climatic extremes, and households' food consumption in Bangladesh: a longitudinal data analysis. Environ. Chall. 7:100495. doi: 10.1016/J.ENVC.2022.100495 

Nexus of climate change and water scarcity

Bangladesh faces a growing number of difficulties related to limited access to drinking water and health concerns, which can be directly or indirectly linked to climate change. The climatic occurrences are undeniably affecting the inland water sources and human health in Bangladesh (Alauddin & Sarker 2014). Currently, Bangladesh is affected by climate change, which can be seen in the slow increase in sea levels and temperatures. Additionally, the region is experiencing greater climate variability and more frequent extreme events, such as significant floods, droughts, and storms (Khan et al. 2011). Climate change has the potential to impact human health through a variety of interconnected and interdependent paths, one of which is the scarcity of safe water. When it comes to health and well-being, the effects of water scarcity brought on by climate change are complicated. Unsafe drinking water and infections that are transmitted through water are responsible for approximately 80% of all illnesses that occur in impoverished countries. The lack of access to clean drinking water is a significant crisis in the south-western region of Bangladesh, which is caused by climate change (Abedin et al. 2019). In terms of water, the repercussions of climate change may be broken down into two categories: the availability of water and the quality of water. Both of these aspects are inextricably connected to the health of humans. Most notably, Bangladesh's water extraction and delivery systems are not very well established; as a result, the country's total water infrastructure is badly impacted whenever a natural disaster occurs (Ahmed et al. 2021).

Extreme weather conditions, such as storms and typhoons, have a significant impact on the water quality of recreational waterbodies, such as coastal waters. These conditions also contribute to a rise in the contamination of drinking water, which in turn could lead to diseases that are transmitted through water (Haikerwal & Saxena 2020). Andrade et al. (2018) found that climate change has a wide range of effects on water supplies, groundwater contamination, health, and ultimately human life. The water supply and infrastructure are the first to be affected by natural disasters. Natural freshwater sources can be contaminated when floods or tidal surges inundate ponds, tube wells, and other bodies of water (WaterAid 2012). As a result of their heavy reliance on surface water (ponds and rivers) and groundwater for drinking, the coastal population is particularly at risk as a result of this predicament (Khan et al. 2014). According to Sikder & Jian (2014), the situation has worsened as a result of the surge in the number of waterborne infections that are associated with rising sea levels, flooding, and the increasing salinity of the soil. Inadequate access to clean water due to water scarcity is a major public health concern in many regions of the world. Waterborne diseases, including typhoid and salmonellosis, can spread from person to person due to feces-contaminated drinking water (Motoshita et al. 2011). When considering the impact of climate change on water resources, it becomes clear that the absence of safe drinking water presents a significant threat to human health in the form of waterborne diseases. Water challenges due to climate change are presented in Table 2. It is anticipated by the WHO that by the year 2025, 50% of the world's population will be under water stress (WHO 2016). It is estimated that 1.8 billion people are forced to drink water that is tainted with sewage, which is a contributor to the development of diseases such as cholera, typhoid fever, dysentery, and polio. Water quality is also negatively impacted. There is mounting empirical evidence that the fast urbanization and population growth is negatively impacting human health through pollution and water contamination (Haikerwal & Saxena 2020).

Table 2

Water challenges due to climate change

Climate change-induced disturbancesCausesRelevant evidence
Instances of stormwater and sewage overflowing have been documented in studies conducted by Lane et al. (2013), Paterson et al. (2018), and Dadonaite et al. (2018)  Waterborne pathogens infections Waterborne diseases such as headache, dizziness, diarrhea, stress, gastrointestinal infections, and leptospirosis infections (Rando et al. 2012; Hasegawa et al. 2015; Dadonaite et al. 2018) Respiratory, skin, and wound infections caused by waterborne pathogens are more likely to occur when there is greater precipitation (Hasegawa et al. 2015; Fuhrimann et al. 2017). All infections are transmitted by polluted drinking water 
The combination of increasing temperature and excessive water leads to the occurrence of flood, storm surge, or local rise in sea levels (Menne et al. 2002; Plag & Jules-Plag 2013Vector-borne diseases Climate change leads to a rise in vector-borne diseases as a result of higher temperatures and increased precipitation (Plag & Jules-Plag 2013; Ferraguti et al. 2016; Lin et al. 2016; Mathieu & Karmali 2016; Fuhrimann et al. 2017; Moha et al. 2020; Karuppusamy et al. 2021a, 2021b
Vector of long-term stored water contamination Water-related vector-borne diseases Diseases transmitted by vectors – dengue fever, malaria, and lymphatic filariasis – are on the rise (WHO 2021b
Droughts and excess precipitation (Rahman et al. 2019Elevated susceptibility to infectious agents causing diarrhea (Dey et al. 2012The decrease in groundwater levels during droughts might compel communities that depend on tube wells to search for alternative sources of drinking water, which may be polluted. This can result in both droughts and intense rainfall, hence increasing the vulnerability to diarrheal diseases in Bangladesh 
Heavy rainfall and flooding (Rahman et al. 2019Diarrheal diseases The presence of contaminants in drinking water has been associated with a higher incidence of cholera, typhoid, and diarrheal disorders caused by salmonellae, shigellae, and Escherichia coli (Cash et al. 2014; Wu et al. 2016
Lack of sufficient access to potable water Multiple non-diarrheal and non-infectious illnesses (Hunter et al. 2010Water shortage causes insufficient availability of safe drinking water, which can result in the transmission of waterborne diseases including typhoid and salmonellosis due to fecal contamination of the drinking water (Howard & Bartram 2003; Motoshita et al. 2011; Abedin et al. 2019
Climate change-induced disturbancesCausesRelevant evidence
Instances of stormwater and sewage overflowing have been documented in studies conducted by Lane et al. (2013), Paterson et al. (2018), and Dadonaite et al. (2018)  Waterborne pathogens infections Waterborne diseases such as headache, dizziness, diarrhea, stress, gastrointestinal infections, and leptospirosis infections (Rando et al. 2012; Hasegawa et al. 2015; Dadonaite et al. 2018) Respiratory, skin, and wound infections caused by waterborne pathogens are more likely to occur when there is greater precipitation (Hasegawa et al. 2015; Fuhrimann et al. 2017). All infections are transmitted by polluted drinking water 
The combination of increasing temperature and excessive water leads to the occurrence of flood, storm surge, or local rise in sea levels (Menne et al. 2002; Plag & Jules-Plag 2013Vector-borne diseases Climate change leads to a rise in vector-borne diseases as a result of higher temperatures and increased precipitation (Plag & Jules-Plag 2013; Ferraguti et al. 2016; Lin et al. 2016; Mathieu & Karmali 2016; Fuhrimann et al. 2017; Moha et al. 2020; Karuppusamy et al. 2021a, 2021b
Vector of long-term stored water contamination Water-related vector-borne diseases Diseases transmitted by vectors – dengue fever, malaria, and lymphatic filariasis – are on the rise (WHO 2021b
Droughts and excess precipitation (Rahman et al. 2019Elevated susceptibility to infectious agents causing diarrhea (Dey et al. 2012The decrease in groundwater levels during droughts might compel communities that depend on tube wells to search for alternative sources of drinking water, which may be polluted. This can result in both droughts and intense rainfall, hence increasing the vulnerability to diarrheal diseases in Bangladesh 
Heavy rainfall and flooding (Rahman et al. 2019Diarrheal diseases The presence of contaminants in drinking water has been associated with a higher incidence of cholera, typhoid, and diarrheal disorders caused by salmonellae, shigellae, and Escherichia coli (Cash et al. 2014; Wu et al. 2016
Lack of sufficient access to potable water Multiple non-diarrheal and non-infectious illnesses (Hunter et al. 2010Water shortage causes insufficient availability of safe drinking water, which can result in the transmission of waterborne diseases including typhoid and salmonellosis due to fecal contamination of the drinking water (Howard & Bartram 2003; Motoshita et al. 2011; Abedin et al. 2019

Twenty million people living in coastal areas are already at a higher risk of developing hypertension and other water-related illnesses due to the rising salinity of the water (UNDP 2007). Coastal Bangladesh is experiencing a scarcity of accessible and uncontaminated water sources, leading to around 15 million individuals being forced to consume salty water and 30 million individuals being unable to get safe drinking water (Hoque 2009). Andrade et al. (2018) stated that anthropogenic activity will invariably result in the modification of water systems. Furthermore, countries or nations that are now dealing with climatic difficulties and natural disasters like drought and floods must simultaneously address the challenges posed by the growth of their populations. Because of decreased revenue and sluggish development, there will be a decrease in water resources, which will lead to an increase in the problems of water quality and environmental health. Since the beginning of the 21st century, the availability of water has been falling across all sectors by 7–11% (UNDP 2016).

Due to climate change, low-income countries face drinking water salinization issues. Bangladesh suffers from salt infiltration and health issues (Khan et al. 2008). Approximately 20 million individuals in Bangladesh are susceptible to hypertension, a leading contributor to cardiovascular ailments (Rasheed et al. 2016). This is due to the higher salt content in water, which can lead to hypertension and related illnesses. The Gorai river has witnessed an increase in salinity and incursion length as a result of the rise in sea levels, according to the findings of a study that was conducted in Bangladesh using an integrated salt flow model and a hydrodynamic model. Human health risks associated with salt contamination of drinking water in Bangladesh were the subject of a comparable investigation. In comparison to the average qualifying limits, another study found that the surface water in Bangladesh had high levels of arsenic and drinking water had two to four times higher amounts (Rakib et al. 2019). Because of the significant amount of sodium that is consumed through drinking water, the problem of salinity and hypertension will become even more severe in the future among individuals who live in coastal locations (Scheelbeek et al. 2016; Naderi & Saatsaz 2020). Bangladesh is very susceptible to climate-related calamities and the impacts of climate change. Climate change has been linked to various health risks, both short term and long term. These risks include an increase in communicable diseases, such as those transmitted through water, vectors (like mosquitoes), and food. Climate change is also associated with non-communicable diseases like cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases, high blood pressure, mental illness, and malnutrition. Enforcing these steps can greatly diminish waterborne diseases. In order to guarantee the long-term availability and safety of drinking water, it is essential to formulate inclusive plans that take into account all the aforementioned issues at the community level.

Nexus of climate change and health

Globally, there is a growing concern over climate variability and one of the main risks to public health is climate change, which has a significant influence on social and natural ecosystems (Adnan et al. 2017; Caminade et al. 2019). Indeed, climate change poses a multitude of immediate and future health concerns. These include a rise in non-communicable diseases such as mental illness, hypertension, cardiovascular and cerebrovascular disease, and an upsurge in communicable diseases such as water, vector, and food-borne infections, as well as malnutrition (Abedin et al. 2019). An overview of climate-sensitive health issues and outcomes is presented in Table 3.

Table 3

Overview of climate change vulnerability factors and possible health outcomes which have direct and indirect health effects depending on environmental, socioeconomic, and public health factors

Climate change vulnerability factorsHealth outcomes
Demographic (e.g., extreme weather events) Mortality from extreme weather effects 
Geographic (e.g., heat) Heat-related illness 
Biologic (e.g., sea level rise) Respiratory diseases 
Socioeconomic (e.g., drought/cyclones) Waterborne diseases and water-related diseases 
Socio-political (e.g., water scarcity, humidity/rainfall, pollution) Malnutrition and food-borne diseases 
Non-communicable diseases 
Mental and psychological health 
Climate change vulnerability factorsHealth outcomes
Demographic (e.g., extreme weather events) Mortality from extreme weather effects 
Geographic (e.g., heat) Heat-related illness 
Biologic (e.g., sea level rise) Respiratory diseases 
Socioeconomic (e.g., drought/cyclones) Waterborne diseases and water-related diseases 
Socio-political (e.g., water scarcity, humidity/rainfall, pollution) Malnutrition and food-borne diseases 
Non-communicable diseases 
Mental and psychological health 

In addition, the microbiological contamination caused by bacteria, protozoa, and viruses has increased due to climate change, lowering the quality of inland water and increasing the risk to human health (Habiba et al. 2011; Alauddin & Sarker 2014; Leal et al. 2022). According to statistics, waterborne illnesses and contaminated drinking water cause an estimated 1.8 million deaths worldwide each year, accounting for nearly 80% of illnesses in developing nations (Habiba et al. 2011; Alauddin & Sarker 2014; Ahmed et al. 2021). Every year, approximately 150,000 people die as a result of climate change worldwide, with elderly and child populations being particularly vulnerable (Talukder et al. 2021). Climate model estimations suggest that Bangladesh is especially vulnerable to the consequences of climate change (Alam et al. 2017). Climate-sensitive diseases, such as diarrhea, skin diseases, malaria, typhoid, malnutrition, aching, and heatstroke have been increasing. The agricultural sector is also being affected by the increasing rate of temperature and unpredictable rainfall in Bangladesh (Hossain et al. 2021). The combined effects of extreme weather events, rising temperatures, and ongoing population growth are expected to have a substantial impact on public health outcomes such as death, injury, the spread of illnesses, damage to healthcare infrastructure, and public health services, and are presented in Table 4. Several studies have been conducted in Bangladesh on various subjects, such as cholera, respiratory infections, watery diarrhea, and skin problems (Abedin et al. 2019; Ahmed et al. 2021; Talukder et al. 2021). Other studies have explored mortality and climatic trends (Hashizume et al. 2009; Alam et al. 2012), the connection between pre-eclampsia and hypertension with salinity in drinking water (Talukder et al. 2016), the causes of death related to extreme temperatures (Burkart et al. 2014), and vector-borne diseases (Haque et al. 2013). Most of these research works examine the correlations between certain diseases and climate change. There is a lack of information regarding the various effects on broader aspects of health, such as health systems and well-being.

Table 4

Health challenges due to climate change

Climate hazardPhysical health impactRelevant evidencePsychological health impactRelevant evidence
Storms and storm waves, as well as local risks from sea-level rise (Lane et al. 2013; Paterson et al. 2018; Adams & Nyantakyi-Frimpong 2021Enhanced risk of death or serious illness, cold, and anxiety (Lane et al. 2013; Paterson et al. 2018; Adams & Nyantakyi-Frimpong 2021The cases and injuries that occur as a result of drowning are frequently documented by insurance companies, governmental agencies, hospitals (Lane et al. 2013; Paterson et al. 2018), and qualitative empirical studies: Acute anxiety that is perceived to be present (Adams & Nyantakyi-Frimpong 2021Elevated long-term mental health consequences resulting from stress due to storms. (Lane et al. 2013; Adams & Nyantakyi-Frimpong 2021Several empirical studies (Kamal & Aslam 2016; Geng et al. 2018; Hrabok et al. 2020) have provided compelling evidence regarding the indicators of vulnerability to mental health outcomes following a disaster. Additionally, qualitative studies (Lane et al. 2013) have found strong evidence of climate-induced mental health conditions, post-traumatic stress disorder, and emotional stress among vulnerable populations. Several empirical research have demonstrated a moderate impact on psychological health (Adams & Nyantakyi-Frimpong 2021
Flooding Increased maternal death Pregnant women experience significant maternal complications, inadequate antenatal checkups, and a shortage of clinicians during flooding events (Abdullah et al. 2019Increases mental stress Flooding is a significant risk factor that can have a detrimental impact on the physical and psychological well-being of mothers (Abdullah et al. 2019). It can lead to an increase in injuries, respiratory diseases, and cardiovascular diseases (van Daalen et al. 2022; Liu et al. 2024
Heat Elevated mortality rates among the elderly, chronic renal disease, allergy and infectious disorders can lead to increased mortality and morbidity in vulnerable populations such as children, women, and the elderly Prolonged exposure to high temperatures in urban areas can lead to the development of preexisting medical issues (O'Neill & Ebi 2009; Zanobetti et al. 2012) and renal damage as a result of extended periods of dehydration (Tawatsupa et al. 2012Rising prevalence of mental and behavioral illnesses Neurodegenerative disease resulting from prolonged exposure to high temperatures (Bongioanni et al. 2021). In addition, heat waves have been linked to mood disorders, anxiety disorders, dementia, and anxiety-related disorders (Nitschke et al. 2011
Cyclones and food-borne diseases and malnutrition Food insecurity caused by weather conditions The issues of hunger, food-borne infections, and malnutrition have been extensively studied by van Daalen et al. (2022)  Impeded tranquility and movement Tropical cyclones and flooding, in addition to rising sea levels, pose greater threats to infrastructure, especially in coastal areas with low elevation (Koks et al. 2019). This disrupts the livelihoods of farmers and fishermen, hampers food storage and distribution, and consequently restricts access to food 
Poor air quality Adverse birth outcomes detrimentally affect the health of both the mother and child Studies have established a link between poor air quality and adverse outcomes such as stillbirths, intrauterine growth restriction, and congenital impairments (Šrám et al. 2005; Chen et al. 2006; Health Effects Institute 2018Depression and anxiety People with psychosis or mood disorders have been shown to use mental health services more frequently when there is higher air pollution (Massazza 2023
Rainfall Increased bacterial disease Rainfall raises the risk of bacteria and fecal pollution in rivers and freshwater resources (Tornevi et al. 2014Discrimination and stigma, mood disorders Higher rates of infectious disease exposure can have a major negative influence on mental health because they increase the risk of hospitalization or long-term repercussions from serious infections (Massazza 2023
Humidity and drought Hunger, mortality, and an increase in vector-borne illnesses and skin infections The reduction in water supply leads to a rise in vector-borne diseases such as malaria and dengue fever. Furthermore, the presence of water-related disorders is exacerbated by the impact on water quality and availability (Ahmed et al. 2016Depression, feelings of discouragement, and the act of taking one's own life A correlation has been established between crop failures caused by unforeseen droughts and instances of suicide attempts among farmers (Padhy et al. 2015). The study conducted by Rotge et al. (2014) found that mood disorders have the highest occurrence in relation to rainfall, with modest fluctuations in monthly rainfall and high levels of rainfall being the main contributing factors 
Riverbank erosion and cyclones Increased hunger and malnutrition The acceleration of internal migration was caused by the loss of livelihood and damage to agriculture (Hasnat et al. 2020Increased aggressive behaviors Due to Bangladesh's geographical location and socioeconomic conditions, climate change-related factors such as sea-level rise, cyclones, flash floods, riverbank erosion, and salinity intrusion are increasing. As a result, the number of displaced people is rising rapidly (Hasnat et al. 2020
Extreme cold Skin and other respiratory diseases, mortality rate will rise Heat temperatures were associated with a higher short-term death rate compared to cold temperatures, as indicated by studies conducted by Goodman et al. (2004). In addition, it induces shivering and fatigue, disorientation or clumsy hands; amnesia and incoherent speech; drowsiness, vivid red, chilled skin, and extremely low vitality (CDC 2007Major depressive disorder Exposure to cold temperatures can cause a decrease in plasma fluid, which may result in the formation of blood clots (Tornevi et al. 2014
Climate hazardPhysical health impactRelevant evidencePsychological health impactRelevant evidence
Storms and storm waves, as well as local risks from sea-level rise (Lane et al. 2013; Paterson et al. 2018; Adams & Nyantakyi-Frimpong 2021Enhanced risk of death or serious illness, cold, and anxiety (Lane et al. 2013; Paterson et al. 2018; Adams & Nyantakyi-Frimpong 2021The cases and injuries that occur as a result of drowning are frequently documented by insurance companies, governmental agencies, hospitals (Lane et al. 2013; Paterson et al. 2018), and qualitative empirical studies: Acute anxiety that is perceived to be present (Adams & Nyantakyi-Frimpong 2021Elevated long-term mental health consequences resulting from stress due to storms. (Lane et al. 2013; Adams & Nyantakyi-Frimpong 2021Several empirical studies (Kamal & Aslam 2016; Geng et al. 2018; Hrabok et al. 2020) have provided compelling evidence regarding the indicators of vulnerability to mental health outcomes following a disaster. Additionally, qualitative studies (Lane et al. 2013) have found strong evidence of climate-induced mental health conditions, post-traumatic stress disorder, and emotional stress among vulnerable populations. Several empirical research have demonstrated a moderate impact on psychological health (Adams & Nyantakyi-Frimpong 2021
Flooding Increased maternal death Pregnant women experience significant maternal complications, inadequate antenatal checkups, and a shortage of clinicians during flooding events (Abdullah et al. 2019Increases mental stress Flooding is a significant risk factor that can have a detrimental impact on the physical and psychological well-being of mothers (Abdullah et al. 2019). It can lead to an increase in injuries, respiratory diseases, and cardiovascular diseases (van Daalen et al. 2022; Liu et al. 2024
Heat Elevated mortality rates among the elderly, chronic renal disease, allergy and infectious disorders can lead to increased mortality and morbidity in vulnerable populations such as children, women, and the elderly Prolonged exposure to high temperatures in urban areas can lead to the development of preexisting medical issues (O'Neill & Ebi 2009; Zanobetti et al. 2012) and renal damage as a result of extended periods of dehydration (Tawatsupa et al. 2012Rising prevalence of mental and behavioral illnesses Neurodegenerative disease resulting from prolonged exposure to high temperatures (Bongioanni et al. 2021). In addition, heat waves have been linked to mood disorders, anxiety disorders, dementia, and anxiety-related disorders (Nitschke et al. 2011
Cyclones and food-borne diseases and malnutrition Food insecurity caused by weather conditions The issues of hunger, food-borne infections, and malnutrition have been extensively studied by van Daalen et al. (2022)  Impeded tranquility and movement Tropical cyclones and flooding, in addition to rising sea levels, pose greater threats to infrastructure, especially in coastal areas with low elevation (Koks et al. 2019). This disrupts the livelihoods of farmers and fishermen, hampers food storage and distribution, and consequently restricts access to food 
Poor air quality Adverse birth outcomes detrimentally affect the health of both the mother and child Studies have established a link between poor air quality and adverse outcomes such as stillbirths, intrauterine growth restriction, and congenital impairments (Šrám et al. 2005; Chen et al. 2006; Health Effects Institute 2018Depression and anxiety People with psychosis or mood disorders have been shown to use mental health services more frequently when there is higher air pollution (Massazza 2023
Rainfall Increased bacterial disease Rainfall raises the risk of bacteria and fecal pollution in rivers and freshwater resources (Tornevi et al. 2014Discrimination and stigma, mood disorders Higher rates of infectious disease exposure can have a major negative influence on mental health because they increase the risk of hospitalization or long-term repercussions from serious infections (Massazza 2023
Humidity and drought Hunger, mortality, and an increase in vector-borne illnesses and skin infections The reduction in water supply leads to a rise in vector-borne diseases such as malaria and dengue fever. Furthermore, the presence of water-related disorders is exacerbated by the impact on water quality and availability (Ahmed et al. 2016Depression, feelings of discouragement, and the act of taking one's own life A correlation has been established between crop failures caused by unforeseen droughts and instances of suicide attempts among farmers (Padhy et al. 2015). The study conducted by Rotge et al. (2014) found that mood disorders have the highest occurrence in relation to rainfall, with modest fluctuations in monthly rainfall and high levels of rainfall being the main contributing factors 
Riverbank erosion and cyclones Increased hunger and malnutrition The acceleration of internal migration was caused by the loss of livelihood and damage to agriculture (Hasnat et al. 2020Increased aggressive behaviors Due to Bangladesh's geographical location and socioeconomic conditions, climate change-related factors such as sea-level rise, cyclones, flash floods, riverbank erosion, and salinity intrusion are increasing. As a result, the number of displaced people is rising rapidly (Hasnat et al. 2020
Extreme cold Skin and other respiratory diseases, mortality rate will rise Heat temperatures were associated with a higher short-term death rate compared to cold temperatures, as indicated by studies conducted by Goodman et al. (2004). In addition, it induces shivering and fatigue, disorientation or clumsy hands; amnesia and incoherent speech; drowsiness, vivid red, chilled skin, and extremely low vitality (CDC 2007Major depressive disorder Exposure to cold temperatures can cause a decrease in plasma fluid, which may result in the formation of blood clots (Tornevi et al. 2014

Additionally, previous challenges of attribution exist. The study's findings indicate that climate change has a substantial influence on the health issues in the area under investigation. Climate fluctuations, such as changes in salinity, prolonged dry periods, and excessive rainfall, significantly hinder the availability of safe drinking water and contribute to an increase in waterborne illnesses among over half of the impacted population. Bangladesh has achieved remarkable advancements in enhancing the health results of its populace, including improvements in infant and maternal health as well as total life expectancy. Nevertheless, there is compelling evidence indicating that climate change is currently undermining certain health advancements, thereby impeding the nation's ability to alleviate poverty, enhance prosperity, and pursue a trajectory that aligns with achieving net zero emissions.

Interlinkages among climate, water-related diseases, and health impacts

The availability of safe water, the shortage of water, and health are all impacted by climate change; nevertheless, the most significant issue with water quality is the health of humans. There will be an increase in the amount of stress placed on water availability, accessibility, supply, and demand as a result of climate change, particularly expected extremes. Starvation and water shortages may be the areas that are most likely to be affected by climate change in terms of the health of larger population (IPCC 2007). Dengue fever, diarrhea, and cholera are examples of climate-sensitive diseases that are affected by climate fluctuation (Martinez-Urtaza et al. 2016; Kuwajima et al. 2019; Fong 2020; Semenza 2020). Research has shown that temperature and precipitation are very influential in the spread of waterborne and water-related diseases (Islam et al. 2020). Climate change is a direct factor that contributes to the resurgence of infectious diseases that are found in aquatic environments, such as cholera. It is projected that the rates of diarrhea in a number of developing countries may increase as a consequence of changes in conditions related to climate. The degree of this impact, on the other hand, will vary depending on the particular type of shift that is occurring, the location, and the climate of the area (Mellor 2016; Bhandari et al. 2020). Disasters that are caused by climate change, such as floods and heavy rains, have been found to have a direct and unmistakable connection to the incidence of waterborne diseases. Flooding and precipitation are typically followed by a rise in the number of zoonotic infections and illnesses that are transmitted by water. Additionally, high temperatures make it easier for these pathogens to proliferate. It has been found that dry weather is connected with typhoid fever in Europe (Morand et al. 2013). In light of the fact that this literature review reveals that there is a research gap in studies that deal with waterborne diseases and climatic variability, it is imperative that additional research be conducted in order to specifically investigate the impacts of climate change on waterborne diseases. The following are some of the most significant aspects that are associated with the health effects that climate change has on human beings, as illustrated in Figure 3. There is mounting evidence that the effects of global climate change will be detrimental to human health and water quality. It might cause flooding, shortages of water, and changes in the water's quality, all of which are harmful to people's health. However, there are methods for reducing and even eliminating these health hazards. The overall prevalence of waterborne disease is underreported because many illnesses related to water do not get reported or are not treated. With the aid of our study, policymakers may take the initiative to eradicate these hazards at the beginning.
Figure 3

Main interlinkages among physical, psychological, water challenges with climate change (self-prepared).

Figure 3

Main interlinkages among physical, psychological, water challenges with climate change (self-prepared).

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Barriers to climate change adaptation

The extent of climate change vulnerability among different stakeholders is contingent on diverse responsibilities, roles, and rights (Hayward & Karlsson 2021). Bangladesh's remote countryside, geographic location, clustering floodplains, and highly flat coastal land render it immensely vulnerable to climate change (Bernier et al. 2016; Haque et al. 2017; Abedin et al. 2019; Ashrafuzzamana & Furini 2019; Talukder et al. 2021). High temperatures, extreme precipitation, flooding, cyclones, riverbank erosion, salinity intrusion, waterlogging, sea-level rise, and other climatic stressors increase vulnerability to infectious disease (Ayeb-Karlsson et al. 2016; Kabir et al. 2016; Abedin et al. 2019; Bodrud-Doza et al. 2020; Hayward & Karlsson 2021; Kirby & Mainuddin 2022). High population density and poverty are the major socioeconomic factors influencing climate change's vulnerability (Hayward & Karlsson 2021). One of the most important factors increasing climate change vulnerability in Bangladesh is Bangladesh's restricted scientific and technological framework (Haque et al. 2017). Barriers to climate change are presented in Figure 4.
Figure 4

Major barriers to climate, water, and health adaptation in Bangladesh (Source: Haque et al. 2017; Abedin et al. 2019; Moon 2023, 2024).

Figure 4

Major barriers to climate, water, and health adaptation in Bangladesh (Source: Haque et al. 2017; Abedin et al. 2019; Moon 2023, 2024).

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Policies and practices that support mental health and have a positive influence on the environment to go beyond obstacles have led to the identification of a number of coping methods. These systems have the capability to modify the impacts on the psychological and physiological well-being of susceptible populations in Bangladesh. Figure 5 presents policies and activities that benefit both parties, benefit climate policies and the critical component for policies and actions that benefit both parties. Also, they enhance the availability of environmental-friendly aquatic areas, enhance the process of active transport, boost homes' energy efficiency, diminish inequality, boost communal harmony, transparent, free expression, participatory governance, enhance the state of physical and mental health, decrease likelihood of climate-related risks, decrease rates of suicide and depression, decrease aggressiveness in behavior, lower emissions, enhance climate policies and initiatives, efficiently sequester carbon dioxide and mitigate heat in urban environments, diminish levels of air and noise pollution as well as decrease emissions of greenhouse gases, lower emissions of greenhouse gases and the combustion of fossil fuels, reduce emissions that are associated with greater income equality, provide climate policies for better readiness in communities and participation in climate policies for natural hazards has been identified. Finally, Figure 6 illustrates the advantages of implementing the policies for the enhancement of water, mental health, and physical health. Mental health improvement, by adapting these policies, includes enhanced engagement with the natural environment and has a significant effect on mental well-being, reducing air and noise pollution may enhance mental well-being, heat stress can be decreased in households with lower heating costs, improved well-being leading to good mental health, reduced mental stress and increased social well-being and trust in social acts to encourage effective coping techniques to minimize mental diseases has been focused. In addition, physical health improvement, by adapting these policies, include enhanced physical well-being as a result of breathing in clean air and engaging in physical activity has the potential to decrease the occurrence of diseases, reduced chance of dying, reduced likelihood of confrontation, enhanced social welfare and eliminated diseases at physical risk, effective strategies would enable cooperation against all disturbances, and finally, water quality improvement, by adapting these policies, include enhanced water purity, reducing water pollution may enhance the chances of species survival, reduced garbage disposal and shallower water sources, using water efficiently, reduced water pollution, better sanitation standards, and effective solutions by adapting water usage policies properly are focused in Figure 6. To ensure long-term health and access to safe drinking water, inclusive policies that address all of the aforementioned problems must be implemented at the local level.
Figure 6

Improvement of the physical health, mental health, and quality of water by adapting the policies (Source: WHO 2015; Sawatzky et al. 2019; Dick et al. 2020; Evans 2021; Godden et al. 2021; Lawrance et al. 2022).

Figure 6

Improvement of the physical health, mental health, and quality of water by adapting the policies (Source: WHO 2015; Sawatzky et al. 2019; Dick et al. 2020; Evans 2021; Godden et al. 2021; Lawrance et al. 2022).

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This review emphasizes effects of the climate change on both water and health. Concerns about climate change's consequences on health and water are fueled by social inequality. More and more studies are being conducted on a broader variety of subjects, which is encouraging, and it provides more proof that climate change has unequal effects on human health. According to the study's findings, climate change exacerbates health concerns along with a substantial impact on the access to clean water. Climate variability, including salinity, droughts in the dry season, and floods in the wet season, has drastically reduced the supply of clean drinking water. The insufficiency of health centers serves as an another evidence that the current healthcare infrastructure and policies aimed at maintaining the safety of drinking water are inadequate in addressing the escalating health issues. An extensive analysis of the body of research highlights Bangladesh's immediate risk of experiencing health issues related to unsafe water availability as a result of climate change. In the meantime, this review also emphasizes the thorough comprehension of this intricate and varied problem. More specifically, less-developed country like Bangladesh receive little attention in the current research. Large-scale research works are also lacking, and the cause of climate change is not sufficiently established. To address these difficulties, the study investigates practical ways that can be used to ensure drinking water safety and individual well-being. Implementing these strategies has the potential to drastically reduce waterborne diseases and enhance general health. The study's conclusions highlight how crucial it is for different stakeholders – including local communities, non-governmental organizations, and government agencies – to work together to implement focused adaptation initiatives that improve health outcomes and guarantee access to clean drinking water. It is imperative for future research to prioritize closing the gaps in knowing the diverse impacts of climate change on water and human health in order to achieve a more comprehensive understanding. This paper proposes several mitigation strategies to reduce the impacts of climate change by employing new technology, enacting appropriate legislation, and adopting a shift in lifestyle. Adaptation to health concerns and the reduction of waterborne infections are ultimately helped by these and other potential adaptation methods. In addition, it will be simpler to accomplish the sustainable development goals (SDGs), which are closely connected to issues of water and health as well as climate change. Finally, the study suggested that to tackle the problem of climate change and enhance holistic solutions in Bangladesh for a long-term sustainable livelihood, multiple stakeholders should actively engage in monitoring changes, evaluating their impact, facilitating adaptation, and formulating strategies to ensure access to safe drinking water and enhance healthcare facilities. The government should be in charge of discovering potential water sources and implementing improved health and drinking water legislation. Additionally, implementation of local plans should be carried out in order to guarantee a supply of water that is suitable for consumption and to reduce the risk of adverse impacts on health. Furthermore, capacity-building programs and community-based initiatives should be put in place to help locals deal with the situation and make sure everyone has access to safe drinking water. In addition to assisting at-risk populations in Bangladesh in reaching the SDGs, these initiatives will strengthen the community's capacity to withstand and adapt to adverse conditions.

M.P.M. contributed to conceptualization, data curation, formal analysis, funding acquisition, investigation, methodology, resources, software, supervision, validation, visualization, writing of original draft, writing the review and editing.

The author declares that no financial support was received for the review, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Data cannot be made publicly available; readers should contact the corresponding author for details.

The authors declare there is no conflict.

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