In a practical scenario, only a modest amount of distilled water can be generated each day by a basic solar still with a single basin. Fin-type solar ponds, fin-type solar stills, and integrated fin-type solar stills with finned ponds are investigated. The theoretic performance and experimental studies on the proposed systems were carried out in Pongalur near Tirupur (10.9729° N, 77.3698° E), a region with a latitude of 10° north. Single basin solar still (SBSS), single basin solar still with fin, single basin solar still with pond, single basin solar still with finned pond, and integrated single basin fin-type solar still with a finned solar pond were developed. Adding fins to the small solar pond enhanced the thermal performance of SBSS, by increasing the daily water collection. The pace at which heat is transmitted from the basin to water has risen due to the fins. According to this study, the amount of water collected by single basin solar still with fin, single basin solar still with finned pond, and integrated single basin solar still with fins and finned pond grew by 46, 48, and 52% for each of these systems.

  • Fin-type solar ponds combined with traditional solar stills are examined in this research.

  • Amount of water collected by single basin solar still with fin, single basin solar still with finned pond, and integrated single basin solar still with fins and finned pond increased by 46, 48, and 52% for each of these systems.

  • Both experimental and numerical analysis were done and compared.

All living things require water as a basic necessity. Due to increased demand for water, there will be more wars fought in the future over this scarce resource. Human and animal life is not feasible without the availability of potable water, scarcity leads to crisis (Alwan et al. 2020). The lack of water can be dangerous to one's health, and it may even result in death. The oceans cover 71% of the planet's land area. Oceans and seas contain over 97% of the world's water resources, and much of it is saltwater (Hammadi 2020). Fewer than 3% of all water supplies around the globe are considered freshwater. The great bulk of the world's clean water contains ice in glaciers and icy surfaces. Fresh water in rivers and lakes makes up 0.3% of the total water supply all around the world (Suraparaju et al. 2021). Less than 1% of the clean surface and underground water on the earth is used by humans. The quantity of purified water needed to fulfil the expanding needs of business, agriculture, and the general public is decreasing despite a growing worldwide population (Baskaran & Saravanane 2021). Economic growth and quality of life are negatively affected when there is a deficiency of safe drinking water. Since brackish water cannot be utilized to produce drinks or other commodities due to the presence of dangerous bacteria and/or dissolved salts, many developing nations are in urgent need of clean, safe drinking water (Tlili & Alkanhal 2019). Despite the fact that seawater is readily available, potable water cannot be found along various coastlines. Even life-supporting systems need potable water (Mu et al. 2019).

A lack of access to healthy water sources is a major factor in the development of severe illness. Most of the two million individuals who die each year as a result of waterborne diseases do so as children, primarily in underdeveloped nations where cholera, diarrhoea, typhoid, and malaria are the most common. For water purification, distillation is one of the methods available (Nayi & Modi 2021). There must be a source of energy, such as heat, but solar radiation can also play a role. Pure water is formed when water vapour is isolated from dissolved materials and condensed as a result of evaporation. Renewable energy may be the ideal alternative for small communities that do not have access to cheap fossil fuels to power the desalination process (Shalaby et al. 2016). Devices like solar stills can be used to distil seawater and brackish waters into clean and reusable liquids. Solar stills (SS) are commonly used in rural and isolated areas to provide modest amounts of potable water (Appadurai & Velmurugan 2017). Water scarcity is an issue all throughout the world, but it is most acute during the summer seasons (Gao et al. 2017). Summer is also a time when people drink a lot of water, and the amount of sunlight absorbed by the earth's surface is at its highest point. So, a variety of water desalination technologies are being developed, but they all demand a lot of electricity (Hidouri & Gabsi 2016).

In contrast to other saltwater desalination methods, solar desalination is well renowned for its cost-free energy, low operational expenses, and simple construction. In addition to treating brackish and contaminated water, solar desalination technology can also be applied invariably. Numerous solar still designs were explored and tested to boost daily production (Sharon et al. 2021). A new, experimental corrugated sunlight still has been created, which increases the condensation rate (Shahin et al. 2016; Abdelgaied et al. 2022). The investigations on various solar still cover angles were carried out by Cardoso et al. (2022). The maximum efficiency obtained was 27.7%. Arjunan et al. (2017) employs both internal and external reflectors in his single basin solar still (SBSS). The flat plate collection was found to be 51% more productive than a multiple slope SS (Coelho 2005). Run Kumar et al. (2021) built a solar still that was 26% more efficient than standard solar stills by using an electric blower with several wicks. The pyramid-shaped solar still developed by El-Bahi & Inan (1999) is thus 45% more efficient than the SBSS. Riahi et al. (2016) evaluated the tube-SS with a tepid water flow over the distillate cover to achieve a high productivity of 16 kg·m−2. A single basin was used to evaluate the outcome of water cooling the glass cover; also, it was found that still efficiency may be boosted by up to 20% by appropriately configuring the film-cooling settings. A cooling water velocity of 1.5 m·s−1 was measured around the glass covering (Xu et al. 2020). The essential elements affecting the efficiency of solar evaporation were examined (Rajanarthini et al. 2013). Stepped solar productivity was still boosted by 125% by using inside and outside reflectors (Dehghan et al. 2015). Katekar & Deshmukh (2020) established one-dimensional thermal modelling of a glazing solar collector flat panel model utilizing a fin-theory method. When designing their solar still, Xue & Li (2015) focused on reducing the cost per unit of usable heat flow by adjusting the fin's width and thickness. For example, Toyama et al. (1987) employed solar stills with fins constructed of old cotton rags that have been darkened to produce 7.5 kg·m−2.

It has been observed that solar stills used to produce ethanol benefit from fins by a factor of 46% (Mousa & Gujarathi 2016). Production was increased by 33% when a storage container, another solar system, and two flat plate collectors were added (Appadurai & Velmurugan 2015). They demonstrated that, on an average day, a two-basin solar still generated 100% more distilled water than a single basin (Dumka & Mishra 2022). To increase production, Kumar et al. (2021) paired standard with flat plate collectors. The addition of a solar collector increased solar power's efficiency even further. It is possible that winter days can increase daily output by as much as 70–100%. It was discovered by Bie et al. (2019) that their new wick basin solar still was 90% extra prolific than previous models and 43% more productive than previous wick basin models. Cranmer (1998) utilized black rubber and also black gravel as the storage media for solar stills. An increase of 20 and 19%, respectively, in productivity was discovered in the studies with black rubber also black gravel used.

From the literature, it was found that adequate work on SBSS and desalination plants equipped with another integrated setup was not carried out. Hence, an attempt was made to develop an SBSS with three different conditions; SBSS with fin (SBSS-F), SBSS with solar pond (SBSS-FP), and integrated SBSS with fin and finned solar pond (IBSS), which is the novelty of the present study. The experimental and theoretical analyses were carried out and compared on the basis of the technique that was presented.

Single basin solar still

Figure 1 shows a schematic view of a typical conventional SBSS. Storage tanks, solar still, thermometers, and piping networks make up the standard solar still. Storing tanks and solar stills are part of the conventional solar stills with thermally insulated pipe lines (Sharon et al. 2020). The galvanized iron solar still basin is 2 mm thick and 0.12 m deep. The SBSS has been painted matte black from top to bottom to optimize solar absorption. The wooden box, which measures 1.2 m × 1.2 m × 0.19 m thick and 0.1 m high, includes the basin of SBSS. The interior of the wooden box was painted white to maximize the quantity of sunlight that reached the water's surface. Sawdust is positioned between the wooden crate and the still basin to reduce heat loss. This experimental setup is fabricated and tested in Pongalur (10.9729° N, 77.3698° E) latitude and an angle of 10° is used to lay the plain 5 mm thick glass on top of a wooden crate. As a precaution against rain and sun radiation, the sheet metal covers all five sides of a wooden crate.
Figure 1

Solar still with single basin.

Figure 1

Solar still with single basin.

Close modal

Combining a mini-pond and solar still (SBSS-P)

The low output of SBSS is correlated to the inflow of water heat, which is a key operating parameter. Solar still pre-heats the water used as the input for the mini solar pond. An SBSS-P is shown in Figure 2. The minisolar pool's top and bottom surface area is 0.63 and 0.07 m2, respectively. The solar pond's axial height is 0.3 m. One of the key challenges in utilizing solar ponds for desalination is improving their efficiency. This can be done by dividing tiny solar ponds into three distinct regions: the LCZ (lower convective zone), the NCZ (non-convective zone), and the UCZ (upper convective zone). Saturated brine is used to preserve LCZ's consistent and high-concentration salt. Due to the increase in the specific heat of the water caused by the rise in salinity, the boiling point of the water also rises. To prevent thermal loss from the LCZ, NCZ salinity increases with depth.
Figure 2

Solar still and pond combined together.

Figure 2

Solar still and pond combined together.

Close modal

Solar still with fin (SBSS-F)

As demonstrated in Figure 3, five fins were added to the SBSS to increase its total surface area. The fins were equally spaced and measured 900 mm in length, 35 mm in breadth, and 2 mm in thickness. Increasing the absorber's surface area with fins permits excellent convection heat transfer from the basin to the water (Obot et al. 2022).
Figure 3

Schematic view of solar still with fin.

Figure 3

Schematic view of solar still with fin.

Close modal

Mini fin-type solar pond with solar still (SBSS-FP)

The tiny solar pond's heat storage capacity is inversely related to the pond's base area. By including fins, the solar pond's bottom surface area can be expanded. For SBSS-FP, four numbers of fins were considered. The solar pond's occupancy rate (area %) determined the fin count. Figure 4 depicts the solar pond's basin, which consists of four solid rectangular fins. The fins have dimensions of 200 mm in length, 50 mm in breadth, and 2 mm in thickness. Increased size has also increased the LCZ's exposed surface area to convective heat transmission from the pond's bottom surface.
Figure 4

Fin-type solar pond as well as still.

Figure 4

Fin-type solar pond as well as still.

Close modal

Single basin fin-type solar still with fin-type mini solar pond (ISBSS)

An SBSS-F and SBSS-FP are combined to create an ISBSS, which increases the efficiency of an SBSS. Figure 5 shows the ISBSS. In this configuration, solar stills use solar energy to vaporize water from a basin, leaving behind impurities, and then collect the condensed condensation on fin-like structures. Until then, the mini solar pond with fins serves as an additional heat source, increasing the efficacy of the still by utilizing sunlight to heat the basin and fins. This combined system maximizes freshwater production by using direct solar energy and the heat retained in the micro solar pond. It has tremendous potential as a decentralized and sustainable water purification solution.
Figure 5

Solar still with fins and mini finned solar pond.

Figure 5

Solar still with fins and mini finned solar pond.

Close modal

Experimental procedure

Experiments were conducted at Pongalur, close to Tirupur (10.9729° N, 77.3698° E), at 10° north latitude. Bay of Bengal seawater was collected for experimental purposes. The experimentation was conducted on 22 May 2023, from 9 AM to 5 PM. Four thermocouples were installed in various locations to measure basin and water temperatures, and a digital temperature indicator was connected to them. A solarimeter measures global solar radiation. The anemometer measures the productivity of distillate water. The three operating parameters of the solar still are slope angle (10°), water depth (3 cm), and ambient inlet water temperature (30 °C) were considered for this experiment (Arunkumar et al. 2021). A polyvinyl chloride (PVC) conduit and flow control valve connect the solar still to the micro solar pond to produce heated water in sections (Mahian et al. 2017). The LCZ heats a copper heat exchanger that circulates the UCZ's water. The flow control valve is opened every half-hour to receive the preheated water. To balance the water level in the UCZ, fresh water is added to the solar pond's surface. Every hour, measurements are recorded.

For the theoretical estimation of SBSS and its modification, the energy balance equation is considered. The basin energy balance equation is the sum of all the energy gained and lost through convective heat transfer, as well as side losses Qloss that are received by the basin plate in solar still.

For basin

(1)
where represents incidence angles of solar still
(2)
represents horizontal angles of solar still
(3)
The convective heat transferring from basin to water is derived by
(4)
Loss of heat
(5)
Conventional radiation, evaporation heat transfer, and side losses are included because salty water receives energy from the sun and base. Assuming that salt water absorbs energy from the sun and absorber plate, this summation includes the energy lost owing to convectional, radiation, and evaporation heat transfer and side losses.
(6)
whereas
(7)
Heat transfer for side loss
(8)
where Ub = 14 W·m−2 k−1
Convectional transfer of heat from water to glass can be evaluated by subsequent formulation (Dwivedi & Tiwari 2010)
(9)
where Pw is the partial pressure for water vapour; Tw is the temperature of the water (°C), Tg is the temperature of the glass (°C)
(10)
where Pg is the saturated partial pressure at condensing glass cover
(11)
The formula can be used to calculate the radiation transfer of heat between water and glass.
(12)
σ = 0.567 × 10−7

εeff = (1/εw + 1/εg)−1

Tw and Tg represent water as well as glass temperature (°c), respectively.

Heat transferring from water and glass evaporation can be estimated using the subsequent equation (Dwivedi & Tiwari 2010).
(13)

For glass

An increase in the amount of energy that passes through a glass lid is equal to the sum of all the energy losses that occur as a result of heat transfer, whether it be radiation or convective. Glass produces a lot of energy (Dwivedi & Tiwari 2010).
(14)
Transfer of heat by radiation among glass and sky
(15)
where σ represents the Stefan–Boltzmann constant, 5.67 × 10−8 W·m−2 k−4; Tsky is the radiation temperature (°C), and Tg is the evaporated water temperature (°C).
(16)
(17)
whereas Ta is the ambient temperature; εlg and εyg represent the lower and upper glass emissivity
Saline water-specific heat Cp can be calculated from formulae (Dwivedi & Tiwari 2010)
(18)
a1, a2, a3, and a4 are considered to be constant.
(19)
(20)
(21)
(22)

To begin with, the temperatures of the water, basin, and glass are all considered to be ambient. Equations (6) and (7) are used to calculate temperature changes in water (dtw), basin temperature (dtb), and temperature changes in glass as in Equation (12). By using the MATLAB program, Equations (6) and (12) were solved. The flat plate collector's internal heat losses are equal to the solar still's energy intake.

The cumulative condensation

The total condensation rate was evaluated by formulae (Dwivedi & Tiwari 2010)
(23)
whereas hfg can be evaluated from the subsequent equivalences.
(24)

Impact of a solar pond on productivity

The LCZ of the solar system heats the seawater as it transports it to the basin where the solar system is located. The saltwater in the solar pond is preheated by solar radiation. The temperature variance between water and glass expands even more as preheating water is transferred to solar still. The experiments were carried out from morning 9 AM to evening 5 PM (22 May 2023). Figure 6(a) demonstrates the comparison of theoretical and experimental productivity of SBSS without a pond. The maximum quality of freshwater output was observed around 0.40 L·m−2 (Experimental) and 0.45 L·m−2 (Theoretical) at 3 PM. Solar water outputs may be slowed without a solar pond. Solar ponds may preheat water before it reaches the still to speed up evaporation. The water may take longer to attain the necessary temperatures for effective distillation if this preheating is not done.
Figure 6

Effect of the solar pond on production: (a) productivity without pond and (b) productivity with pond.

Figure 6

Effect of the solar pond on production: (a) productivity without pond and (b) productivity with pond.

Close modal

From Figure 6(b), it was observed that the maximum freshwater productivity of SBSS-P was 0.557 L·m−2 (Experimental) and 0.579 L·m−2 (Theoretical) at 1 PM. The solar still's performance and efficiency can be improved by combining it with a solar pond (Mahian et al. 2017). The solar pond's heated water can be used to heat the solar still, allowing it to produce more potable water at higher temperatures. Incorporating a small solar pond into the still boosted its production, as seen in Figure 6, which is raised by an average of 27.6%.

Impact of fins on productivity

Despite adding fins to the SBSS, more solar energy is collected due to the higher surface area provided by fins. Because of this, salty water evaporates faster, boosting production. Figure 7(a) shows the maximum productivity of freshwater output without fin was 0.33 L·m−2 (Experimental) and 0.35 L·m−2 (Theoretical), which was observed around 2 PM. An SBSS-F may generate fresh water more slowly than more sophisticated variants due to its lower efficiency. It could take more time to produce the required output, and sunlight exposure needed to produce a suitable volume of distilled water could be a constraint, especially in locations with a high water demand and few sunlight hours.
Figure 7

Impact of fins on productivity: (a) productivity without fins, (b) productivity with fins, and (c) variation of solar intensity with and without fins.

Figure 7

Impact of fins on productivity: (a) productivity without fins, (b) productivity with fins, and (c) variation of solar intensity with and without fins.

Close modal

From Figure 7(b), it was observed that the maximum productivity of SBSS-F was around 0.47 L·m−2 (Experimental) and 0.50 L·m−2 (Theoretical) at 2 PM. In comparison to basic solar still without fins, SBSS-F may greatly boost solar production. Adding fins, also known as heat-absorbing collectors, improves solar energy absorption and heat transfer to the water within the still. This results in increased freshwater output, quicker evaporation rates, and warmer water temperatures. From Figure 7(c), the maximum solar intensity with and without fins was observed around 711 and 686 W·m−2, respectively, at 1 PM. The integration of fins into a solar system significantly affects sunlight intensity. The solar intensity is improved in a number of ways by the use of fins, eventually resulting in better solar energy absorption and utilization. The use of fins at the still's bottom has been proven to boost productivity by 46%. According to Figure 7, the theoretical performance has a maximum divergence of 9.1% when compared to the experimental results.

The impact of finned solar pond with fin-type solar still on productivity

The pond's surface area increases when fins are used in both the pond and the still. The increased surface area at the bottom of the pond increases its ability to retain heat. Figure 8(a) shows the maximum freshwater output was observed around 0.151 L·m−2 (Experimental) and 0.162 L·m−2 (Theoretical) at 2 PM without a finned pond. The efficiency of solar still without and with ISBSS may be constrained since fin solar ponds may produce considerable amounts of freshwater more quickly and at greater temperatures. Therefore, simple solar still without fins and without a solar pond may have a lower daily water production than alternative setups with more advanced features. But in some circumstances, it is a practical and affordable choice for purifying water.
Figure 8

The effect of finned pond and still on productivity: (a) productivity without finned pond and still, (b) productivity with finned pond and still, and (c) variation of solar intensity.

Figure 8

The effect of finned pond and still on productivity: (a) productivity without finned pond and still, (b) productivity with finned pond and still, and (c) variation of solar intensity.

Close modal

Figure 8(b) clearly shows that the maximum freshwater output was observed around 0.404 L·m−2 (Experimental) and 0.415 L·m−2 (Theoretical) at 1 PM for finned pond. When a solar still and a finned solar pond are used together, the efficacy of water filtration can be significantly boosted. The finned solar pond ensures continuous evaporation by supplying hot water to the solar still (Baskaran & Saravanane 2021). The solar still condenses and evaporates hot water from the solar pond's bottom layer. Since the solar still uses indirect sunlight in addition to direct sunlight to heat the water, this integration enables a more reliable and effective water purification process. Instead, even on cloudy days or during low solar radiation, it gains from the consistent supply of heated water from the finned pond (Sharon et al. 2020).

Figure 8(c) shows that the maximum solar intensity with and without fins was 810 and 796 W·m−2, respectively, at 1 PM. The surface area accessible for heat absorption is increased when fins or other heat-absorbing materials are present in the solar pond's bottom layer. As a result, the solar pond is able to absorb and hold onto more solar energy, which raises the water's temperature. The enhanced heat absorption contributes to the improvement in the solar pond's overall efficiency (Abdelgaied et al. 2022). The temperature difference inside the solar pond increases as more solar energy is turned into heat, which warms the water. The fins help to keep the solar pond's top layer, which has low salinity, and its bottom layer, which has high salinity, at nearly constant temperatures. Figures 8 and 9 demonstrate the evaluation of productivity for several alterations, and it was determined that fins in both the still and pond bottom enhanced productivity. From Figure 9, the yield obtained by fin-type solar pond with still was 3.1 L/h. It is high compared to the other conventional systems. Figure 10 compares the productivity of different authors for various modifications. The productivity of the ISBSS was 52%.
Figure 9

Comparison of water yield by different approaches.

Figure 9

Comparison of water yield by different approaches.

Close modal
Figure 10

Evaluation of productivity from different approaches.

Figure 10

Evaluation of productivity from different approaches.

Close modal

Table 1 illustrates the production growth rate for each of the systems studied. A solar still and solar pond with fins may increase a solar thermal energy system's output and performance. Installing ISBSS enhances the capacity for receiving energy and storing it, leading to good heat retention and fewer losses (Abdelgaied et al. 2022). Providing the solar still with warm water constantly improves its ability to distil and produce water. The integrated system is more dependable since it maintains constant energy production even when there is little sunlight or at night. Compared to other systems, ISBSS gives the maximum productivity (Hammadi 2020).

Table 1

Productivity from different systems

System% Improvement in productivity
SBSS-F 46 
SBSS-FP 48 
ISBSS (SBSS-F + SBSS-FP) 52 
System% Improvement in productivity
SBSS-F 46 
SBSS-FP 48 
ISBSS (SBSS-F + SBSS-FP) 52 

The design limitations and some experimental variables are related to the error. Instrument selection, calibration, condition, observation, environment, reading, and test design are all factors that can affect how accurate and precise it is. An uncertainty analysis is necessary to ensure the tests are conducted properly. Table 2 provides the instruments used in this work along with their model, making the accuracy level and range of operation.

Table 2

Instruments model no. and spec and make

Sl. NoInstrumentModelMakeAccuracyRange
Anemometer AVM 03 Metrix +   
Thermocouple K-type Radix   
Measuring beaker 1L RS Pro   
Kipp–Zonen solarimeter SP Lite2 Kipp-Zonen   
Sl. NoInstrumentModelMakeAccuracyRange
Anemometer AVM 03 Metrix +   
Thermocouple K-type Radix   
Measuring beaker 1L RS Pro   
Kipp–Zonen solarimeter SP Lite2 Kipp-Zonen   

Calculating the instrument's slightest potential error involves dividing the device's smallest reading, the minor meter reading, by the lowest possible output value. This yields the instrument's slightest possible error. Equation (25) presents the equation used to determine the uncertainty of the measuring instruments used in this research. From the uncertainty analysis, it is found that the total uncertainty of the measuring instruments lies within ± 1.596% in this work.
(25)

The different changes were tested through outdoor experiments. The investigation analysed the SBSS, SBSS-F, SBSS-P, SBSS-FP, and ISBSS through theoretical and experimental methods. All modifications experienced increased productivity during the peak hours. The solar radiation led to a productivity increase. The large surface area exposed to solar radiation in the still and mini solar pond made the ISBSS more productive. In addition, convection increased the basin-to-water heat transfer rate. This increased the rate of thermal transfer from the basin to the water. Compared to conventional stills, using fins in the still and a mini solar pond can increase daily output by 52%. SBSS-FP and SBSS-F increased productivity by 48 and 46%, respectively.

All authors contributed equally to this work.

All relevant data are included in the paper or its Supplementary Information.

The authors declare there is no conflict.

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