Table 2

Summary of recent and emerging treatment technologies for PFAS degradation/removal

Treatment technologyTarget PFASWater matrixInitial concentrationDegradation/sorptionScaleReference
Recent technologies AC PFOA, PFOS, PFHxS, PFHxA, Municipal WWTP effluent 3.7–16 ng/L PFOS and short-chain PFAS not removed Full scale Thompson et al. (2011)  
PAC PFOA, PFOS Municipal WWTP effluent 25–44 ng/L 6–52% for PFOS, PFOA not removed Full scale Mailler et al. (2015)  
GAC PFOA, PFOS, PFNA, PFDA, PFHpA, PFHxA, PFHxS, PFPnA, PFBA Municipal WWTP effluent 1 μg/L Complete removal except PFOS (40%) Pilot scale Inyang & Dickenson (2017)  
AC PFOA, PFHxA, PFHpA Industrial WWTP effluent 0.1–0,29 mmol/L 88–90% Laboratory scale Du et al. (2015)  
GAC 13 PFAS Municipal WWTP effluent 2 μg/L 95% on average Laboratory scale Rostvall et al. (2018)  
GAC (Calgon Filtrasorb® 300 PFAAs DI water + NOM 1 μg/L >20% breakthrough for all PFAAs and negative removal for PFBA and PFPeA Laboratory scale Appleman et al. (2013)  
Ion exchange (PFA 300) PFOS DI water 0.01–1 mg/L 99%, 455 mg/g adsorption capacity Laboratory scale Chularueangaksorn et al. (2013)  
Ion exchange (IRA67) PFOS Simulated industrial WW 400 mg/L 4–5 mmol/g adsorption capacity Laboratory scale Deng et al. (2010)  
Ion exchange (A714) PFOA, PFOS Simulated industrial WW 1,000–3,000 mg/L PFOS below detection limit, 99.6% PFOA removal Laboratory scale Lampert et al. (2007)  
Ion exchange 11 short-chain, 5 long-chain including PFBA, PFBS, GenX Surface water 1 μg/L 80–100% Laboratory scale Ateia et al. (2018)  
Ion exchange (IRA67) PFOA, PFOS, PFBA, PFBS, PFHxA, PFHxS Simulated AFFF-impacted groundwater 0.1–0.5 mmol/L 90% of PFOS, 10% of PFBA
(PFOS > PFHxS > PFOA > PFBS > PFHxA > PFBA) 		Laboratory scale Maimaiti et al. (2018)  
Emerging technologies EOX (BDD) PFBA, PFPeA, PFHxA, PFHpA, PFOA, FTSAs, 6:2 FTCA, 6:2 FTAB Industrial WWTP effluent ΣPFAS = 1,642 μg/L Σ99.7% Laboratory scale Gomez-Ruiz et al. (2017b)  
EOX (Ti/RuO2) PFOA, PFOS and PFAAs AFFF-impacted groundwater 0.7–65 μg/L 98% for PFOS and 58% for PFOS Laboratory scale Schaefer et al. (2015)  
EOX (BDD) Short- and long-chain PFCAs DI water, river water and municipal WWTP effluent 200 μg/L each >92 and 75% defluorination for long-chain PFCAs in DI water and effluent Laboratory scale Barisci & Suri (2020)  
EOX (TiRuO2) PFCAs and PFSAs DI water 100 μg/L each 16–67% for short-chain PFAS, 64–91% for long-chain PFAS. Laboratory scale Barisci & Suri (2021)  
EOX (magnéli phase) PFOA, PFOS, PFHxS, PFHpA, PFHpS Still bottom wastewater Not mentioned 56.9%–98.9% Laboratory scale Wang et al. (2020a)  
EOX (Lead) C6–C8 PFAS Industrial WWTP effluent 1,000–20,000 μg/L 99%, less effective for short-chain Pilot scale Fath et al. (2016)  
Ultrasound (505 kHz) PFOA, PFOS, PFHS, PFBS, PFHA AFFF-contaminated wastewater 53 ± 13–3,650 ± 710 mg/L 90% removal in 2 h with 50% TOC removal Laboratory scale Vecitis et al. (2010)  
Ultrasound (354–612 kHz) PFOA, PFOS DI water and groundwater below a landfill ∼100 μg/L Rate constant reduced by 56–61% in groundwater Laboratory scale Cheng et al. (2008)  
Plasma-based treatment PFOA, PFOS DI water 8.3 mg/L Complete removal in 120 min Laboratory scale Singh et al. (2019)  
Plasma-based treatment Five long-chain, six short-chain PFAAs and eight PFAA precursors Landfill leachate 102–3,000 ng/L Both PFOS and PFOA were removed by 90% in 10–75 min. Other long- and short-chain PFAAs were removed by >99% Laboratory scale Singh et al. (2020a)  
Plasma-based treatment Short- and long-chain PFAAs Still bottom wastewater ∼0.01–100 mg/L >99% of short- and long-chain PFAAs were degraded in 2–6 h Laboratory scale Singh et al. (2020b)  
Emerging technologies Photocatalysis with needle-like Ga2O3 PFOA Municipal wastewater influent 500 μg/L 100% PFOA degradation was achieved in 180 min which was much longer compared to ultrapure water Laboratory scale Shao et al. (2013b)  
Photocatalysis in the presence of In2O3 catalyst PFOA Municipal wastewater effluent 100 μmol/L While 69% PFOA was degraded in pure water within 180 min, the efficiency was reduced to only 10% in wastewater, however, with pH adjustment and ozone addition similar PFOA degradation (69%) was achieved Laboratory scale Li et al. (2012)  
Photocatalysis in the presence of In2O3 catalyst PFOA Simulated municipal wastewater 100 mg/L PFOA degradation was 97.6% with a complete defluorination at pH 2 Laboratory scale Jiang et al. (2016)  
Electro assisted MWNTs PFOA, PFOS DI water with ionic strength 100 μg/L 92% Laboratory scale Li et al. (2011a)  
Organo-clay (matCARETM) PFOS AFFF-contaminated wastewater 0.6 mmol/L 0.09 mmol/L adsorption capacity Laboratory scale Das et al. (2013)  
Organo-clay (matCARETM) PFOA, PFOS Municipal wastewater influent 0.04–0.02 mmol/L Complete removal Full scale Arias Espana et al. (2015)  
Photocatalysis with sheaf-like Ga2O3 PFOA Municipal wastewater effluent 500 μg/L 81% removal within 3 h with 66% defluorination, 100% after adjusting pH to 4.3 Laboratory scale Shao et al. (2013a)  
 COF PFOA, PFOS, GenX and other PFAS DI water 100 μg/L > 90% Laboratory scale Ji et al. (2018)  
 COF GenX and HFPO-TA DI water 0.0756 mmol/L 100% for HFPO-TA and 80% for GenX Laboratory scale Wang et al. (2020c)  
 COF 16 PFAS including PFBA, PFBS, and GenX Industrial wastewater effluent 1,000 ng/L Fast removal kinetics in 60–120 min with no desorption in 24 h Laboratory scale Ateia et al. (2019b)  
 MOF PFOS DI water 1–100 mM 100% Laboratory scale Barpaga et al. (2019)  
 MOF PFOA and PFOS DI water 100–1,000 mg/L > 90% Laboratory scale Sini et al. (2018)  
Treatment technologyTarget PFASWater matrixInitial concentrationDegradation/sorptionScaleReference
Recent technologies AC PFOA, PFOS, PFHxS, PFHxA, Municipal WWTP effluent 3.7–16 ng/L PFOS and short-chain PFAS not removed Full scale Thompson et al. (2011)  
PAC PFOA, PFOS Municipal WWTP effluent 25–44 ng/L 6–52% for PFOS, PFOA not removed Full scale Mailler et al. (2015)  
GAC PFOA, PFOS, PFNA, PFDA, PFHpA, PFHxA, PFHxS, PFPnA, PFBA Municipal WWTP effluent 1 μg/L Complete removal except PFOS (40%) Pilot scale Inyang & Dickenson (2017)  
AC PFOA, PFHxA, PFHpA Industrial WWTP effluent 0.1–0,29 mmol/L 88–90% Laboratory scale Du et al. (2015)  
GAC 13 PFAS Municipal WWTP effluent 2 μg/L 95% on average Laboratory scale Rostvall et al. (2018)  
GAC (Calgon Filtrasorb® 300 PFAAs DI water + NOM 1 μg/L >20% breakthrough for all PFAAs and negative removal for PFBA and PFPeA Laboratory scale Appleman et al. (2013)  
Ion exchange (PFA 300) PFOS DI water 0.01–1 mg/L 99%, 455 mg/g adsorption capacity Laboratory scale Chularueangaksorn et al. (2013)  
Ion exchange (IRA67) PFOS Simulated industrial WW 400 mg/L 4–5 mmol/g adsorption capacity Laboratory scale Deng et al. (2010)  
Ion exchange (A714) PFOA, PFOS Simulated industrial WW 1,000–3,000 mg/L PFOS below detection limit, 99.6% PFOA removal Laboratory scale Lampert et al. (2007)  
Ion exchange 11 short-chain, 5 long-chain including PFBA, PFBS, GenX Surface water 1 μg/L 80–100% Laboratory scale Ateia et al. (2018)  
Ion exchange (IRA67) PFOA, PFOS, PFBA, PFBS, PFHxA, PFHxS Simulated AFFF-impacted groundwater 0.1–0.5 mmol/L 90% of PFOS, 10% of PFBA
(PFOS > PFHxS > PFOA > PFBS > PFHxA > PFBA) 		Laboratory scale Maimaiti et al. (2018)  
Emerging technologies EOX (BDD) PFBA, PFPeA, PFHxA, PFHpA, PFOA, FTSAs, 6:2 FTCA, 6:2 FTAB Industrial WWTP effluent ΣPFAS = 1,642 μg/L Σ99.7% Laboratory scale Gomez-Ruiz et al. (2017b)  
EOX (Ti/RuO2) PFOA, PFOS and PFAAs AFFF-impacted groundwater 0.7–65 μg/L 98% for PFOS and 58% for PFOS Laboratory scale Schaefer et al. (2015)  
EOX (BDD) Short- and long-chain PFCAs DI water, river water and municipal WWTP effluent 200 μg/L each >92 and 75% defluorination for long-chain PFCAs in DI water and effluent Laboratory scale Barisci & Suri (2020)  
EOX (TiRuO2) PFCAs and PFSAs DI water 100 μg/L each 16–67% for short-chain PFAS, 64–91% for long-chain PFAS. Laboratory scale Barisci & Suri (2021)  
EOX (magnéli phase) PFOA, PFOS, PFHxS, PFHpA, PFHpS Still bottom wastewater Not mentioned 56.9%–98.9% Laboratory scale Wang et al. (2020a)  
EOX (Lead) C6–C8 PFAS Industrial WWTP effluent 1,000–20,000 μg/L 99%, less effective for short-chain Pilot scale Fath et al. (2016)  
Ultrasound (505 kHz) PFOA, PFOS, PFHS, PFBS, PFHA AFFF-contaminated wastewater 53 ± 13–3,650 ± 710 mg/L 90% removal in 2 h with 50% TOC removal Laboratory scale Vecitis et al. (2010)  
Ultrasound (354–612 kHz) PFOA, PFOS DI water and groundwater below a landfill ∼100 μg/L Rate constant reduced by 56–61% in groundwater Laboratory scale Cheng et al. (2008)  
Plasma-based treatment PFOA, PFOS DI water 8.3 mg/L Complete removal in 120 min Laboratory scale Singh et al. (2019)  
Plasma-based treatment Five long-chain, six short-chain PFAAs and eight PFAA precursors Landfill leachate 102–3,000 ng/L Both PFOS and PFOA were removed by 90% in 10–75 min. Other long- and short-chain PFAAs were removed by >99% Laboratory scale Singh et al. (2020a)  
Plasma-based treatment Short- and long-chain PFAAs Still bottom wastewater ∼0.01–100 mg/L >99% of short- and long-chain PFAAs were degraded in 2–6 h Laboratory scale Singh et al. (2020b)  
Emerging technologies Photocatalysis with needle-like Ga2O3 PFOA Municipal wastewater influent 500 μg/L 100% PFOA degradation was achieved in 180 min which was much longer compared to ultrapure water Laboratory scale Shao et al. (2013b)  
Photocatalysis in the presence of In2O3 catalyst PFOA Municipal wastewater effluent 100 μmol/L While 69% PFOA was degraded in pure water within 180 min, the efficiency was reduced to only 10% in wastewater, however, with pH adjustment and ozone addition similar PFOA degradation (69%) was achieved Laboratory scale Li et al. (2012)  
Photocatalysis in the presence of In2O3 catalyst PFOA Simulated municipal wastewater 100 mg/L PFOA degradation was 97.6% with a complete defluorination at pH 2 Laboratory scale Jiang et al. (2016)  
Electro assisted MWNTs PFOA, PFOS DI water with ionic strength 100 μg/L 92% Laboratory scale Li et al. (2011a)  
Organo-clay (matCARETM) PFOS AFFF-contaminated wastewater 0.6 mmol/L 0.09 mmol/L adsorption capacity Laboratory scale Das et al. (2013)  
Organo-clay (matCARETM) PFOA, PFOS Municipal wastewater influent 0.04–0.02 mmol/L Complete removal Full scale Arias Espana et al. (2015)  
Photocatalysis with sheaf-like Ga2O3 PFOA Municipal wastewater effluent 500 μg/L 81% removal within 3 h with 66% defluorination, 100% after adjusting pH to 4.3 Laboratory scale Shao et al. (2013a)  
 COF PFOA, PFOS, GenX and other PFAS DI water 100 μg/L > 90% Laboratory scale Ji et al. (2018)  
 COF GenX and HFPO-TA DI water 0.0756 mmol/L 100% for HFPO-TA and 80% for GenX Laboratory scale Wang et al. (2020c)  
 COF 16 PFAS including PFBA, PFBS, and GenX Industrial wastewater effluent 1,000 ng/L Fast removal kinetics in 60–120 min with no desorption in 24 h Laboratory scale Ateia et al. (2019b)  
 MOF PFOS DI water 1–100 mM 100% Laboratory scale Barpaga et al. (2019)  
 MOF PFOA and PFOS DI water 100–1,000 mg/L > 90% Laboratory scale Sini et al. (2018)  
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