Thirty-five research works on wastewater treatment and recycling technology in Thailand over the past 10 years were reviewed and summarized in Table 6, categorized by the type of wastewater sources. Opportunities and challenges are also presented, allowing us to draw the following conclusion. Most previous research related to domestic wastewater treatment has focused on the development of advanced biological treatment systems so that they can be more effective in treating organic matter, nutrients (N, P) and micropollutants by the MBR system as a complement to the overall treatment. However, the development of membrane materials for the system has yet to be studied.
Research trends regarding wastewater treatment technologies, along with opportunities and challenges in Thailand
| No . | Type of wastewater . | Type of wastewater treatment . | Purpose . | Opportunities/challenges . | Ref . |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Municipal | AS | To test the efficiency of systems against 19 common biocides present in wastewater | Efficiency of systems was reported as removal rates ranging from 15 to 95% for individual biocides. Reuse for aquaculture showed high risks of exposure to biocides in aquatic organisms. | Juksu et al. (2019) |
| 2 | Municipal | Contact stabilization, AS with nutrient removal, cyclic AS, two-stage AS, vertical loop reactor AS | To assess the treatment efficiency for removal of organic matter and nutrients | All systems achieved over 80% BOD removal efficiencies. The maximum removal efficiencies of BOD, TP, TN, TKN, NH4-N were observed to be satisfactory, being 93, 69, 60, 83 and 89%, respectively. However, incomplete denitrification was a problem for contact stabilization. Denitrification was required for any type of reuse. | Prateep Na Talang et al. (2020) |
| 3 | Municipal | AS | To investigate the potential risks of 14 pharmaceutical residues from municipal WWTPs in Bangkok | Pharmaceutical residue removal efficiencies ranged from nil to >99%. Three kinds of residues (roxithromycin (RTM), diclofenac (DCF) and sulfonamides) showed very low or no removal. However, the residues in effluents were lower than those detected in ambient water, implying that contamination from WWTPs was negligible. | Tewari et al. (2013) |
| 4 | Municipal | AS | To investigate the occurrence and fate of emerging contaminants (four synthetic musks and nine UV filters) as ingredients in personal care products in Bangkok and Pattaya, Thailand | Low removal efficiencies, ranging from 37 to 58%, were found for four musks, while UV filters showed higher removal efficiencies, ranging from 45 to 81%. The concentrations detected in this study were much higher than those reported elsewhere in the world. Further treatment for these emerging contaminants is required for specific reuse purposes. | Juksu et al. (2020) |
| 5 | Municipal effluents | Bacterium cell-immobilized biochars from wood vinegar | To improve the removal efficiency of triclocarban (TCC), an emerging endocrine disruptor | Biochar with MC46 cells was more effective in TCC removal than biochar without MC64, due to the greater integration of adsorption and biodegradation. A TCC removal efficiency of 79.8% was achieved. A reduction in removal efficiency of 52% occurred after a five-reuse cycle. The biochar could be successfully used for reclamation in terms of the removal of emerging pollutants. | Jenjaiwit et al. (2021) |
| 6 | Municipal | Photocatalytic process | To develop a ZnO/Bi2WO6 heterojunction photocatalyst for the removal of fluoroquinolone-based antibiotics (norfloxacin (NOR), ciprofloxacin (CIP), and ofloxacin (OFL)) | Photodegradation performances of 87, 85 and 84% for NOR, CIP and OFL, respectively, were achieved from the synthesized catalyst. Photodegradation performance of NOR was satisfactory with 97% under a very high solar-light-driven for 120 min. The applied catalyst proved promising for fluoroquinolone-based antibiotics in wastewater. | Chankhanittha et al. (2021) |
| 7 | Domestic | Biofilm photobioreactors (BPBRs) | To ascertain the optimum operating conditions for the removal of organic and nutrient load (N,P) from septic tank effluent | The optimum conditions were obtained as the 6-day hydraulic retention time (HRT), resulting in COD, TN and TP removal efficiencies of 85, 87 and 84%, respectively. COD in effluents was still high and required further treatment for agricultural reuse. | Chaiwong et al. (2021) |
| 8 | Domestic | Electroconductive moving bed membrane bioreactor (EcMB-MBR) | To investigate the simultaneous removal of COD, TN and TP | Removal of COD (97%), TN (88%) and TP (99%) by the EcMB-MBR process was higher than that of conventional submerged MBR. The EcMB-MBR process was able to improve membrane fouling mitigation. This system may be helpful in producing reusable water via decentralized domestic wastewater treatment. | Udomkittayachai et al. (2021) |
| 9 | Domestic | Inclined tube settler + sand filter + ultraviolet light-emitting diode (UV-LED) | To investigation the appropriate conditions and removal efficiency of COD, turbidity and TSS. | This system treatment was applied to meet U.S. EPA criteria for disinfecting water for agricultural use. The pretreatment by the inclined tube settler and sand filter was successfully used to decrease COD by 89.9%, turbidity by 94%, and TSS by 96.8%. | Nguyen et al. (2019) |
| 10 | Domestic | Fats, Oil and Grease (FOG) trap + sediment microbial fuel cells (SMFCs) | To determine optimally constructed single-chamber SMFCs for household application | A COD removal efficiency of 85.8% and a maximum power density of 109.39 mW/m2 were obtained with activated carbon (AC) in the cathode chamber. The direct reuse of effluents was limited. | Lawan et al. (2022) |
| 11 | Domestic | SP + constructed wetland (free water surface (FWS)-CW) | To develop a mathematical model for soluble COD (sCOD) removal process by CW | sCOD leaching from the gravel bed was the main mechanism affecting the sCOD concentration in the treatment system. To prevent sCOD leaching, the suitable HRT should not exceed 2 days. This CW showed potential for dissolved organic matter (DOM) removal, but proved highly sensitive to the HRT. Tertiary treatment is suggested to reduce DOM before reuse. | Ophithakorn et al. (2013) |
| 12 | Domestic | Absorption by porous floating Meretrix lusoria shell composite (PFSC) | To develop PFSC pellet adsorbents for the removal of phosphate and nitrate | Removal efficiency of phosphate was satisfied with >99% by PFSC. Bacterial immobilized PFSC removed 100% of phosphate and nitrate. PFSC pellets were able to float on the water surface and were easily collected and reused. A low-cost treatment to improve effluent quality was achieved in terms of nutrient removal. | Daudzai et al. (2021) |
| 13 | Domestic | Membrane-aerated biofilm reactor (MABR) | To enhance organic matter and total N removal efficiency by MABR with denitrifying bacteria | The improvement of TN removal efficiencies was satisfactory by modified MABR, and >90% organic matter removal, 88% nitrification and 79% total N removal efficiencies were obtained at 12 h of the HRT. | Siriweera et al. (2021) |
| 14 | Domestic/Building | Integrated single-stage anaerobic co-digestion and oxidation ditch membrane bioreactor (SAC/OD-MBR) | To evaluate the appropriate conditions and efficiency of the SAC/OD-MBR | The highest removal efficiencies of COD and TKN-nitrogen were achieved at 93.77 and 85.57%, respectively, with an operating HRT of 24 h and a horizontal flow velocity of 0.3 m/s. Effluent quality is suitable for reuse in garden and landscape applications. | Satayavibul & Ratanatamskul (2021) |
| 15 | Domestic/Dormitory | MBRs | To demonstrate reclaimed water's potential for flushing toilets and cultivating vegetables | The quality of the treated water fell within the guidelines. The growth of vegetables (butterhead lettuce and muskmelon) from treated water compared to tap water was not significantly different. | Itthisuponrat & Teepakpun (2021) |
| 16 | Industrial estate | AS + polishing pond, SBR | To determine processes' performance regarding the removal of PFCs | The AS process proved ineffective in removing PFCs. The overall removal efficiency was about 22–70%. Tertiary treatment is required for indirect potable reuse. | Kunacheva et al. (2011) |
| 17 | Synthetic textile | RO | To determine foulant interaction (salt, surfactant, reactive dye) and RO productivity | During textile wastewater reclamation, surfactant was the major cause of membrane fouling. The lowest productivity was observed when the surfactant concentration approached the critical micelle concentration. | Srisukphun et al. (2010) |
| 18 | Direct Dye dyeing | Photocatalytic process by immobilized TiO2 nanoparticles under UV-A | To develop TiO2 material for the removal of direct dye | A dye removal efficiency of 64% at 4 h was achieved from immobilized TiO2 calcined at 700°C. The dye removal efficiency of second reused catalyst remained high. The potential reuse of treated wastewater by this catalyst within the dyeing process is suggested for small dyeing facilities. | Chairungsri et al. (2022) |
| 19 | Textile and pharmaceutical | Photocatalytic process by hydrothermal ZnO under UV light irradiation | To develop ZnO photocatalysts for the removal of organic pollutants, including dyes and antibiotics | The complete photodegradation of organic pollutants during 20–180 min under solar light irradiation was obtained from hydrothermal ZnO with a Zn2+/OH− mole ratio of 1:5. The applied catalyst is promising for the detoxification of organic pollutants in wastewater. | Sansenya et al. (2022) |
| 20 | Cationic and anionic organic dye | Photocatalytic process | To develop photocatalysts made from Na0.5Bi2.5Nb2O9 nanosheets with exposed {001} facets for photodegradation of dye | A superior degradation efficiency of up to 100% compared with a TiO2 degussa P25 was obtained from the synthesized materials, and exhibited high stability and recyclability. | Jiamprasertboon et al. (2021) |
| 21 | Organic dye | Absorption by activated carbon | To develop AC made from parawood and to study photoadsorption's ability under UV light | The optimum conditions for adsorption capability were obtained with a 5 wt% activated carbon sheet, and exhibited excellent stability and recyclability in five tests. | Chaiwichian & Lunphut (2021) |
| 22 | Organic dye | Electrochemical oxidation (ECO) | To evaluate the energy efficiency and decolorization performance of dyebath effluents containing anthraquinone dye Acid Green 25 | Color and COD were reduced to below-discharge limits using 100 mA cm−2. The aromatic ring was broken into biodegradable substances (carboxylic acids, ammonium, nitrate). The applied ECO system is promising for non-potable reuse purposes in small- and mid-sized textile facilities. | Phetrak et al. (2020) |
| 23 | Dye | AOPs: photocatalytic process | To develop a TiO2 photocatalyst, synthesized by sol-gel and coated on different substrates | A maximum color removal efficiency of 88% was achieved by TiO2-coated glass under UVC irradiation at pH value 11. The same removal efficiencies were obtained in up to 20 cycles. | Sirirerkratana et al. (2019) |
| 24 | Food processing | Anaerobic membrane photo-bioreactor (AnMBR) | To investigate organic removal and biomass production (purple non-sulfur bacteria) and its characteristics | BOD and COD removal efficiencies were found at the moderate range of 51 and 58%, respectively. Further treatment is required for reuse purposes. | Chitapornpan et al. (2013) |
| 25 | Seafood | MBR | To evaluate the removal efficiency of organic matter and nutrients | The removal efficiency of BOD was 99%, compared to only 85% for COD and TOC, during 1,000 h of filtration. TKN removal was very low (close to 5 mg/L). It was necessary to remove residual COD and the yellow light color in the permeate before water reuse by further treatment. | Choksuchart Sridang et al. (2006) |
| 26 | Swine | AOPs based on Fenton by reactive iron-coated natural filter media | To develop low-cost natural materials (zeolite, laterite and pumice) for the removal of veterinary antibiotics | >50% of antibiotic removal was obtained from every iron-coated medium at a neutral pH. The modified zeolite exhibited the highest antibiotic removal efficiency of >70% with at least three times reuse. It is suggested that this material be applied as a polishing step, such as in soil bed filtration and CW before water reuse. | Changduang et al. (2021) |
| 27 | Swine | Conventional anaerobic treatment with adsorbent | To investigate porous metakaolin-based geopolymer granules with tailored macropore structure for ammonium removal | An ammonium removal efficiency of 80% was achieved from the synthesized material even with the presence of organic compounds and competing ions, much improved from natural zeolite (46%). | Sanguanpak et al. (2021) |
| 28 | Rubber | AS + stabilization pond + rock bed filtration | To improve the COD, BOD and turbidity quality of reclaimed wastewater | TSS, BOD and COD removal efficiencies of 89.6, 73.7 and 45.6%, respectively, were obtained by rock bed filters. However, further treatment is suggested to remove the residual organic matter and nutrient to meet water reuse criteria. | Leong et al. (2003) |
| 29 | Eucalyptus pulp and paper mill | MBRs | To investigate the fouling of polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) MBR and COD and color removal performance | COD and color removal efficiency were satisfied with 83 and 79% at mixed liquor suspended solids (MLSS) of 7,280 mg/L. Effluent quality was able to meet discharge standards, with the potential for water reuse. Cleaning with NaOH and NaOCl was necessary to remove the irreversible fouling. | Poojamnong et al. (2020) |
| 30 | WW from flexible PCB | Ion exchanger + RO | To evaluate washed water reuse in a factory by surveying water consumption and quality | Water reuse for the final cleaning process of F-PCB proved feasible by recharging the washed water to both the existing RO unit and the ion exchanger at a suitable ratio to reduce conductivity and liquid particle counter. | Eksangsri & Jaiwang (2014) |
| 31 | Industrial lead-acid battery | Absorption by cation exchanger impregnated with nanoparticles | To develop hydrated ferric hydroxide nanoparticle (C100-Fe) adsorbents for the removal of lead | Lead in effluent was treated to less than 0.2 mg/L by applied C100-Fe in coprecipitation with high lead recovery (94%) during regeneration. Lead removal was achieved according to both drinking and industrial wastewater standards. Cost-effective and reliable Pb removal adsorbents were achieved. | Pranudta et al. (2021) |
| 32 | Lignite coal mine drainage | Ettringite precipitation | To determine the optimum conditions for sulfate removal | The significant factors affecting sulfate removal efficiency were the Al/S ratio and the reaction time. A sulfate removal efficiency of 99% was achieved under a reaction time of 6.14 h, a Ca/S of 4 and an Al/S of 4.5 at ambient temperature. Treated water could be utilized for agricultural purposes. | Pratinthong et al. (2021) |
| 33 | Phenolic | Ozonation and granular activated carbon (GAC) adsorption by fluidized bed | To determine the optimum conditions for phenol removal and an adsorption kinetic model | Phenolic degradation using GAC enhanced with O3 provided better performance than the system without O3. | Pratarn et al. (2011) |
| 34 | Municipal landfill leachate effluent | Two-stage AS and two-stage MBR | To investigate the treatment efficiency of two treatment systems for the removal of organic compounds, nutrients and micropollutants (BPA, 2,6-DTBP, DEP, DBP, DEHP, DEET). | The removal efficiencies for the organic compounds and nutrients of both systems were 80–96%. The micropollutant removal efficiencies of MBR (81–100%) were higher than those of AS (45–87%). MBR with acclimatized seed sludge was more effective in degrading micropollutants than AS, due to the greater abundance of effective bacterial groups. The MBR system is promising for reducing micropollutants for wastewater reclamation. | Kanyatrakul et al. (2020) |
| 35 | Chemistry laboratory | Absorption by white and black charcoal | To reduce COD and adjust pH to neutral | White charcoal was able to neutralize the pH after treatment in both acidity and alkalinity wastewater, and 97–99% COD removal efficiency was achieved from both charcoals. | Pijarn et al. (2021) |
| No . | Type of wastewater . | Type of wastewater treatment . | Purpose . | Opportunities/challenges . | Ref . |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Municipal | AS | To test the efficiency of systems against 19 common biocides present in wastewater | Efficiency of systems was reported as removal rates ranging from 15 to 95% for individual biocides. Reuse for aquaculture showed high risks of exposure to biocides in aquatic organisms. | Juksu et al. (2019) |
| 2 | Municipal | Contact stabilization, AS with nutrient removal, cyclic AS, two-stage AS, vertical loop reactor AS | To assess the treatment efficiency for removal of organic matter and nutrients | All systems achieved over 80% BOD removal efficiencies. The maximum removal efficiencies of BOD, TP, TN, TKN, NH4-N were observed to be satisfactory, being 93, 69, 60, 83 and 89%, respectively. However, incomplete denitrification was a problem for contact stabilization. Denitrification was required for any type of reuse. | Prateep Na Talang et al. (2020) |
| 3 | Municipal | AS | To investigate the potential risks of 14 pharmaceutical residues from municipal WWTPs in Bangkok | Pharmaceutical residue removal efficiencies ranged from nil to >99%. Three kinds of residues (roxithromycin (RTM), diclofenac (DCF) and sulfonamides) showed very low or no removal. However, the residues in effluents were lower than those detected in ambient water, implying that contamination from WWTPs was negligible. | Tewari et al. (2013) |
| 4 | Municipal | AS | To investigate the occurrence and fate of emerging contaminants (four synthetic musks and nine UV filters) as ingredients in personal care products in Bangkok and Pattaya, Thailand | Low removal efficiencies, ranging from 37 to 58%, were found for four musks, while UV filters showed higher removal efficiencies, ranging from 45 to 81%. The concentrations detected in this study were much higher than those reported elsewhere in the world. Further treatment for these emerging contaminants is required for specific reuse purposes. | Juksu et al. (2020) |
| 5 | Municipal effluents | Bacterium cell-immobilized biochars from wood vinegar | To improve the removal efficiency of triclocarban (TCC), an emerging endocrine disruptor | Biochar with MC46 cells was more effective in TCC removal than biochar without MC64, due to the greater integration of adsorption and biodegradation. A TCC removal efficiency of 79.8% was achieved. A reduction in removal efficiency of 52% occurred after a five-reuse cycle. The biochar could be successfully used for reclamation in terms of the removal of emerging pollutants. | Jenjaiwit et al. (2021) |
| 6 | Municipal | Photocatalytic process | To develop a ZnO/Bi2WO6 heterojunction photocatalyst for the removal of fluoroquinolone-based antibiotics (norfloxacin (NOR), ciprofloxacin (CIP), and ofloxacin (OFL)) | Photodegradation performances of 87, 85 and 84% for NOR, CIP and OFL, respectively, were achieved from the synthesized catalyst. Photodegradation performance of NOR was satisfactory with 97% under a very high solar-light-driven for 120 min. The applied catalyst proved promising for fluoroquinolone-based antibiotics in wastewater. | Chankhanittha et al. (2021) |
| 7 | Domestic | Biofilm photobioreactors (BPBRs) | To ascertain the optimum operating conditions for the removal of organic and nutrient load (N,P) from septic tank effluent | The optimum conditions were obtained as the 6-day hydraulic retention time (HRT), resulting in COD, TN and TP removal efficiencies of 85, 87 and 84%, respectively. COD in effluents was still high and required further treatment for agricultural reuse. | Chaiwong et al. (2021) |
| 8 | Domestic | Electroconductive moving bed membrane bioreactor (EcMB-MBR) | To investigate the simultaneous removal of COD, TN and TP | Removal of COD (97%), TN (88%) and TP (99%) by the EcMB-MBR process was higher than that of conventional submerged MBR. The EcMB-MBR process was able to improve membrane fouling mitigation. This system may be helpful in producing reusable water via decentralized domestic wastewater treatment. | Udomkittayachai et al. (2021) |
| 9 | Domestic | Inclined tube settler + sand filter + ultraviolet light-emitting diode (UV-LED) | To investigation the appropriate conditions and removal efficiency of COD, turbidity and TSS. | This system treatment was applied to meet U.S. EPA criteria for disinfecting water for agricultural use. The pretreatment by the inclined tube settler and sand filter was successfully used to decrease COD by 89.9%, turbidity by 94%, and TSS by 96.8%. | Nguyen et al. (2019) |
| 10 | Domestic | Fats, Oil and Grease (FOG) trap + sediment microbial fuel cells (SMFCs) | To determine optimally constructed single-chamber SMFCs for household application | A COD removal efficiency of 85.8% and a maximum power density of 109.39 mW/m2 were obtained with activated carbon (AC) in the cathode chamber. The direct reuse of effluents was limited. | Lawan et al. (2022) |
| 11 | Domestic | SP + constructed wetland (free water surface (FWS)-CW) | To develop a mathematical model for soluble COD (sCOD) removal process by CW | sCOD leaching from the gravel bed was the main mechanism affecting the sCOD concentration in the treatment system. To prevent sCOD leaching, the suitable HRT should not exceed 2 days. This CW showed potential for dissolved organic matter (DOM) removal, but proved highly sensitive to the HRT. Tertiary treatment is suggested to reduce DOM before reuse. | Ophithakorn et al. (2013) |
| 12 | Domestic | Absorption by porous floating Meretrix lusoria shell composite (PFSC) | To develop PFSC pellet adsorbents for the removal of phosphate and nitrate | Removal efficiency of phosphate was satisfied with >99% by PFSC. Bacterial immobilized PFSC removed 100% of phosphate and nitrate. PFSC pellets were able to float on the water surface and were easily collected and reused. A low-cost treatment to improve effluent quality was achieved in terms of nutrient removal. | Daudzai et al. (2021) |
| 13 | Domestic | Membrane-aerated biofilm reactor (MABR) | To enhance organic matter and total N removal efficiency by MABR with denitrifying bacteria | The improvement of TN removal efficiencies was satisfactory by modified MABR, and >90% organic matter removal, 88% nitrification and 79% total N removal efficiencies were obtained at 12 h of the HRT. | Siriweera et al. (2021) |
| 14 | Domestic/Building | Integrated single-stage anaerobic co-digestion and oxidation ditch membrane bioreactor (SAC/OD-MBR) | To evaluate the appropriate conditions and efficiency of the SAC/OD-MBR | The highest removal efficiencies of COD and TKN-nitrogen were achieved at 93.77 and 85.57%, respectively, with an operating HRT of 24 h and a horizontal flow velocity of 0.3 m/s. Effluent quality is suitable for reuse in garden and landscape applications. | Satayavibul & Ratanatamskul (2021) |
| 15 | Domestic/Dormitory | MBRs | To demonstrate reclaimed water's potential for flushing toilets and cultivating vegetables | The quality of the treated water fell within the guidelines. The growth of vegetables (butterhead lettuce and muskmelon) from treated water compared to tap water was not significantly different. | Itthisuponrat & Teepakpun (2021) |
| 16 | Industrial estate | AS + polishing pond, SBR | To determine processes' performance regarding the removal of PFCs | The AS process proved ineffective in removing PFCs. The overall removal efficiency was about 22–70%. Tertiary treatment is required for indirect potable reuse. | Kunacheva et al. (2011) |
| 17 | Synthetic textile | RO | To determine foulant interaction (salt, surfactant, reactive dye) and RO productivity | During textile wastewater reclamation, surfactant was the major cause of membrane fouling. The lowest productivity was observed when the surfactant concentration approached the critical micelle concentration. | Srisukphun et al. (2010) |
| 18 | Direct Dye dyeing | Photocatalytic process by immobilized TiO2 nanoparticles under UV-A | To develop TiO2 material for the removal of direct dye | A dye removal efficiency of 64% at 4 h was achieved from immobilized TiO2 calcined at 700°C. The dye removal efficiency of second reused catalyst remained high. The potential reuse of treated wastewater by this catalyst within the dyeing process is suggested for small dyeing facilities. | Chairungsri et al. (2022) |
| 19 | Textile and pharmaceutical | Photocatalytic process by hydrothermal ZnO under UV light irradiation | To develop ZnO photocatalysts for the removal of organic pollutants, including dyes and antibiotics | The complete photodegradation of organic pollutants during 20–180 min under solar light irradiation was obtained from hydrothermal ZnO with a Zn2+/OH− mole ratio of 1:5. The applied catalyst is promising for the detoxification of organic pollutants in wastewater. | Sansenya et al. (2022) |
| 20 | Cationic and anionic organic dye | Photocatalytic process | To develop photocatalysts made from Na0.5Bi2.5Nb2O9 nanosheets with exposed {001} facets for photodegradation of dye | A superior degradation efficiency of up to 100% compared with a TiO2 degussa P25 was obtained from the synthesized materials, and exhibited high stability and recyclability. | Jiamprasertboon et al. (2021) |
| 21 | Organic dye | Absorption by activated carbon | To develop AC made from parawood and to study photoadsorption's ability under UV light | The optimum conditions for adsorption capability were obtained with a 5 wt% activated carbon sheet, and exhibited excellent stability and recyclability in five tests. | Chaiwichian & Lunphut (2021) |
| 22 | Organic dye | Electrochemical oxidation (ECO) | To evaluate the energy efficiency and decolorization performance of dyebath effluents containing anthraquinone dye Acid Green 25 | Color and COD were reduced to below-discharge limits using 100 mA cm−2. The aromatic ring was broken into biodegradable substances (carboxylic acids, ammonium, nitrate). The applied ECO system is promising for non-potable reuse purposes in small- and mid-sized textile facilities. | Phetrak et al. (2020) |
| 23 | Dye | AOPs: photocatalytic process | To develop a TiO2 photocatalyst, synthesized by sol-gel and coated on different substrates | A maximum color removal efficiency of 88% was achieved by TiO2-coated glass under UVC irradiation at pH value 11. The same removal efficiencies were obtained in up to 20 cycles. | Sirirerkratana et al. (2019) |
| 24 | Food processing | Anaerobic membrane photo-bioreactor (AnMBR) | To investigate organic removal and biomass production (purple non-sulfur bacteria) and its characteristics | BOD and COD removal efficiencies were found at the moderate range of 51 and 58%, respectively. Further treatment is required for reuse purposes. | Chitapornpan et al. (2013) |
| 25 | Seafood | MBR | To evaluate the removal efficiency of organic matter and nutrients | The removal efficiency of BOD was 99%, compared to only 85% for COD and TOC, during 1,000 h of filtration. TKN removal was very low (close to 5 mg/L). It was necessary to remove residual COD and the yellow light color in the permeate before water reuse by further treatment. | Choksuchart Sridang et al. (2006) |
| 26 | Swine | AOPs based on Fenton by reactive iron-coated natural filter media | To develop low-cost natural materials (zeolite, laterite and pumice) for the removal of veterinary antibiotics | >50% of antibiotic removal was obtained from every iron-coated medium at a neutral pH. The modified zeolite exhibited the highest antibiotic removal efficiency of >70% with at least three times reuse. It is suggested that this material be applied as a polishing step, such as in soil bed filtration and CW before water reuse. | Changduang et al. (2021) |
| 27 | Swine | Conventional anaerobic treatment with adsorbent | To investigate porous metakaolin-based geopolymer granules with tailored macropore structure for ammonium removal | An ammonium removal efficiency of 80% was achieved from the synthesized material even with the presence of organic compounds and competing ions, much improved from natural zeolite (46%). | Sanguanpak et al. (2021) |
| 28 | Rubber | AS + stabilization pond + rock bed filtration | To improve the COD, BOD and turbidity quality of reclaimed wastewater | TSS, BOD and COD removal efficiencies of 89.6, 73.7 and 45.6%, respectively, were obtained by rock bed filters. However, further treatment is suggested to remove the residual organic matter and nutrient to meet water reuse criteria. | Leong et al. (2003) |
| 29 | Eucalyptus pulp and paper mill | MBRs | To investigate the fouling of polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) MBR and COD and color removal performance | COD and color removal efficiency were satisfied with 83 and 79% at mixed liquor suspended solids (MLSS) of 7,280 mg/L. Effluent quality was able to meet discharge standards, with the potential for water reuse. Cleaning with NaOH and NaOCl was necessary to remove the irreversible fouling. | Poojamnong et al. (2020) |
| 30 | WW from flexible PCB | Ion exchanger + RO | To evaluate washed water reuse in a factory by surveying water consumption and quality | Water reuse for the final cleaning process of F-PCB proved feasible by recharging the washed water to both the existing RO unit and the ion exchanger at a suitable ratio to reduce conductivity and liquid particle counter. | Eksangsri & Jaiwang (2014) |
| 31 | Industrial lead-acid battery | Absorption by cation exchanger impregnated with nanoparticles | To develop hydrated ferric hydroxide nanoparticle (C100-Fe) adsorbents for the removal of lead | Lead in effluent was treated to less than 0.2 mg/L by applied C100-Fe in coprecipitation with high lead recovery (94%) during regeneration. Lead removal was achieved according to both drinking and industrial wastewater standards. Cost-effective and reliable Pb removal adsorbents were achieved. | Pranudta et al. (2021) |
| 32 | Lignite coal mine drainage | Ettringite precipitation | To determine the optimum conditions for sulfate removal | The significant factors affecting sulfate removal efficiency were the Al/S ratio and the reaction time. A sulfate removal efficiency of 99% was achieved under a reaction time of 6.14 h, a Ca/S of 4 and an Al/S of 4.5 at ambient temperature. Treated water could be utilized for agricultural purposes. | Pratinthong et al. (2021) |
| 33 | Phenolic | Ozonation and granular activated carbon (GAC) adsorption by fluidized bed | To determine the optimum conditions for phenol removal and an adsorption kinetic model | Phenolic degradation using GAC enhanced with O3 provided better performance than the system without O3. | Pratarn et al. (2011) |
| 34 | Municipal landfill leachate effluent | Two-stage AS and two-stage MBR | To investigate the treatment efficiency of two treatment systems for the removal of organic compounds, nutrients and micropollutants (BPA, 2,6-DTBP, DEP, DBP, DEHP, DEET). | The removal efficiencies for the organic compounds and nutrients of both systems were 80–96%. The micropollutant removal efficiencies of MBR (81–100%) were higher than those of AS (45–87%). MBR with acclimatized seed sludge was more effective in degrading micropollutants than AS, due to the greater abundance of effective bacterial groups. The MBR system is promising for reducing micropollutants for wastewater reclamation. | Kanyatrakul et al. (2020) |
| 35 | Chemistry laboratory | Absorption by white and black charcoal | To reduce COD and adjust pH to neutral | White charcoal was able to neutralize the pH after treatment in both acidity and alkalinity wastewater, and 97–99% COD removal efficiency was achieved from both charcoals. | Pijarn et al. (2021) |
PCB, Printed circuit boards; N, Nitrogen; AC, Activated carbon; CW, Constructed wetlands; AOPs, Advanced oxidation processes; BPA, bisphenol A; 2,6-DTBP, 2,6-di-tert-butylphenol; DEP, diethyl phthalate; DBP, dibutyl phthalate; DEHP, di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate; DEET, N,N-diethyl-meta-toluamide.