L. fortunei has aggressively invaded South American freshwaters, having travelled more than 5,000 km upstream across five countries. As is shown in Table 1, the main basins colonized by L. fortunei in South America are Río de la Plata basin, Guaíba basin, Patos-Mirim basin, Tramandaí basin, and Mar Chiquita basin currently. The countries colonized by L. fortunei in South America are Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay, and Bolivia. It is time to take some measures in advance to prevent it from invading the Amazon hydrographic basin.
Biological traits of Limnoperna fortunei
| Biological traits . | Main findings . | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| Development | Main stages | Nonshelled: from fertilization until the formation of the trochophore larva | Planktonic larval stage is key biological trait of Limnoperna fortunei in their lifecycle. |
| Shelled forms: from veliger to plantigrade larvae | |||
| Shell | Prodissoconch I: Free-swimming larval stage, reaching a length of about 115 μm | ||
| Prodissoconch II (the veliger): Free-swimming larval stage, reaching a length of about 320 μm | |||
| Nepioconch: Plantigrade stage, reaching a shell length of approximately 1,300 μm | |||
| Dissoconch: Final shell stage, formed by the juvenile individual and becomes the permanent shell of the adult. The usual size ranges from 20 to 30 mm, some can reach about 45 mm | |||
| Longevity | Variable: 2–5 years, even over 10 years | ||
| Diets | Phytoplankton | Cyanobacteria, Chlorophyceae, Xanthophyta, Bacillariophyceae, Euglenophyta, and Dinophyta | Limnoperna fortunei showed a positive food selectivity for organisms with limited escape ability and low to moderate size. |
| Zooplankton | Rotifera, Cladocera, Copepoda, Protista, Ostracoda, and Nematoda, Limnoperna fortunei larvae | ||
| Behaviour | Great invasive potential; High reproductive rates; Strong viability | It is most effective and economical to manage Limnoperna fortunei at early stages of invasion. | |
| Biological traits . | Main findings . | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| Development | Main stages | Nonshelled: from fertilization until the formation of the trochophore larva | Planktonic larval stage is key biological trait of Limnoperna fortunei in their lifecycle. |
| Shelled forms: from veliger to plantigrade larvae | |||
| Shell | Prodissoconch I: Free-swimming larval stage, reaching a length of about 115 μm | ||
| Prodissoconch II (the veliger): Free-swimming larval stage, reaching a length of about 320 μm | |||
| Nepioconch: Plantigrade stage, reaching a shell length of approximately 1,300 μm | |||
| Dissoconch: Final shell stage, formed by the juvenile individual and becomes the permanent shell of the adult. The usual size ranges from 20 to 30 mm, some can reach about 45 mm | |||
| Longevity | Variable: 2–5 years, even over 10 years | ||
| Diets | Phytoplankton | Cyanobacteria, Chlorophyceae, Xanthophyta, Bacillariophyceae, Euglenophyta, and Dinophyta | Limnoperna fortunei showed a positive food selectivity for organisms with limited escape ability and low to moderate size. |
| Zooplankton | Rotifera, Cladocera, Copepoda, Protista, Ostracoda, and Nematoda, Limnoperna fortunei larvae | ||
| Behaviour | Great invasive potential; High reproductive rates; Strong viability | It is most effective and economical to manage Limnoperna fortunei at early stages of invasion. | |