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Since the study used secondary data analysis of the publicly available datasets, ethical approval was not required. However, at the start of each household interview, EDHS surveyors obtained informed consent, and data were obtained from DHS after being registered and requested from https://dhsprogram.com/data/.

Table 1

WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program (JMP) ladder for WASH services

Service level	Water	Sanitation	Hygiene
Basic	Drinking water from an improved source, provided collection time is not more than 30 min for a round trip, including queuing	Use of improved facilities that are not shared with other households	Availability of a handwashing facility with soap and water at home
Limited	Drinking water from an improved source, for which collection time exceeds 30 min for a round trip, including queuing	Use of improved facilities that are shared with other households	Availability of a handwashing facility lacking soap and/or water at home
Unimproved	Drinking water from an unprotected dug well or unprotected spring	Use of pit latrines without a slab or platform, hanging latrines or bucket latrines	Not applicable
No service	Surface water	Open defecation	No handwashing facility at home

Service level	Water	Sanitation	Hygiene
Basic	Drinking water from an improved source, provided collection time is not more than 30 min for a round trip, including queuing	Use of improved facilities that are not shared with other households	Availability of a handwashing facility with soap and water at home
Limited	Drinking water from an improved source, for which collection time exceeds 30 min for a round trip, including queuing	Use of improved facilities that are shared with other households	Availability of a handwashing facility lacking soap and/or water at home
Unimproved	Drinking water from an unprotected dug well or unprotected spring	Use of pit latrines without a slab or platform, hanging latrines or bucket latrines	Not applicable
No service	Surface water	Open defecation	No handwashing facility at home

Source: Adapted from WHO/UNICEF Progress on Household Drinking Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (2000–2020) (WHO/UNICEF 2021).

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Table 2

WHO/UNICEF JMP ladder for improved and unimproved for water and sanitation facilities

Facilities type	Drinking water	Sanitation
Improved facilities	Piped supplies Tap water in the dwelling, yard or plot, including piped to a neighbor, and public taps or standpipes Non-piped supplies Boreholes/tube wells, protected wells and springs, rainwater, packaged water, including bottled water and sachet water, delivered water, including tanker trucks and small carts/tanks/drums, and water kiosks	Networked sanitation Flush and pour-flush toilets connected to sewers On-site sanitation Flush and pour-flush toilets or latrines connected to septic tanks or pits, Ventilated Improved Pit (VIP) latrines, pit latrines with slabs (constructed from materials that are durable and easy to clean), and composting toilets, including twin pit latrines with slabs and container-based systems
Unimproved facilities	Non-piped supplies Unprotected wells and springs	Networked sanitation Flush and pour-flush toilets flushed to an open drain or elsewhere On-site sanitation Pit latrines without slabs, open pits, hanging toilets/latrines, bucket latrines, including pans, trays or other unsealed containers

Facilities type

Drinking water

Sanitation

Improved facilities

Piped supplies

Tap water in the dwelling, yard or plot, including piped to a neighbor, and public taps or standpipes

Non-piped supplies

Boreholes/tube wells, protected wells and springs, rainwater, packaged water, including bottled water and sachet water, delivered water, including tanker trucks and small carts/tanks/drums, and water kiosks

Networked sanitation

Flush and pour-flush toilets connected to sewers

On-site sanitation

Flush and pour-flush toilets or latrines connected to septic tanks or pits, Ventilated Improved Pit (VIP) latrines, pit latrines with slabs (constructed from materials that are durable and easy to clean), and composting toilets, including twin pit latrines with slabs and container-based systems

Unimproved facilities

Non-piped supplies

Unprotected wells and springs

Networked sanitation

Flush and pour-flush toilets flushed to an open drain or elsewhere

On-site sanitation

Pit latrines without slabs, open pits, hanging toilets/latrines, bucket latrines, including pans, trays or other unsealed containers

Source. Adapted from WHO/UNICEF Progress on Household Drinking Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (2000–2020) (WHO/UNICEF 2021).

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