It has not been long since spring research in Nepal has received much attention. Spring research in Nepal was initiated by ICIMOD in 2003 (Merz et al., 2003a, 2003b). Since then, several studies have been carried out. The studies are mostly focused on mapping springs and understanding the spring status in terms of discharge trend (Dhakal et al., 2021; Rijal, 2016; Chapagain et al., 2019; Gurung et al., 2019a; Pandit et al., 2019; Adhikari et al., 2021b), exploring the causes of spring degradation (Dhakal et al., 2021; Sharma et al., 2016; Poudel & Duex, 2017), water quality assessment (Gurung et al., 2019b; Pandit et al., 2019; Khadka & Rijal, 2020; Thapa et al., 2020; Tiwari et al., 2020) and springs distribution modeling (Ghimire et al., 2019; Pradhan & Shrestha, 2022). Spatially, most of the districts of the mid-hills and lesser Himalaya have been covered for analysis (Table 3).
Summary of spring research in Nepal.
| S.No. . | References . | Major focus . | District . | Location . | No. of studied springs . | Dried-up springs (%) . | Decreasing discharge (%) . | Potential reason for declining discharge and drying up . |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Merz et al. (2003a, 2003b) | Water scarcity | Kaverpalanchowk | Jhiku Khola | – | – | – | – |
| 2 | Merz et al. (2003a, 2003b) | Water scarcity | Dolakha | Yarsa Khola | – | – | – | – |
| 3 | Dhakal et al. (2021) | Spring mapping, status, and conservation | Lalitpur | Godavari | 40 | 4 | – | Migration of people into the region, the increasing demand for water, long-term decline in rainfall, earthquake |
| 4 | Rijal (2016) | Springshed conservation | Nepal | – | – | – | ||
| 5 | Sharma et al, (2016) | Increasing discharge through research ponds | Kaverpalanchowk | Tinpiple | 70 | 15 | – | Increased water consumption, increased extraction, and reduced recharge, land use and other changes, lack of awareness of the link between recharge and spring flow |
| 6 | Sharma et al. (2016) | Increasing discharge through research ponds | Kaverpalanchowk | Dapcha | 174 | 30 | – | – |
| 7 | Sharma et al. (2016) | Increasing discharge through research ponds | Kaverpalanchowk | Daraune Pokhari | 42 | 45 | – | – |
| 8 | Chapagain et al. (2019) | Spring status and conservation | Sindhupalchok | Melamchi | 412 | 18 | 30 | Late and less winter rainfall, 2015 Earthquake, tunnel construction, haphazard construction of rural roads, decreased effort in water conservation |
| 9 | Poudel & Duex (2017) | Spring status | Nuwakot | Thulokhola watershed | 41 | 12.2 | 73.2 | Declining precipitation |
| 10 | Shrestha et al. (2017) | Reviving springs | Dailekh | Dullu | 106 | – | 19.81 | – |
| 11 | Ghimire et al. (2019) | Spring potential zone mapping | Sindhupalchok | Melamchi | – | – | – | – |
| 12 | Gurung et al. (2019a) | Water scarcity, spring status, and changes | Surkhet, Dadheldhura, Nuwakot, Khotang | – | 20 | – | – | |
| 13 | Gurung et al. (2019b) | Water quality | Surkhet, Dailekh, Achham, Kalikot, Doti, Kailai, Dadheldhura, Pyuthan, Arghakhanchi, Gulmi | Mid and far-western Nepal – 5 watersheds | – | – | – | Reduced infiltration rates in hills, fluctuating rainfall, uncontrolled road building, the disappearance of traditional ponds, lakes, and wallows, rural infrastructure development without environmental concerns, and source concreting and piping |
| 14 | Pandit et al. (2019) | Mapping, classification, water quality | Sindhupalchok | Bansbari | 41 | – | – | – |
| 15 | Khadka & Rijal (2020) | Springwater quality | Sindhupalchok | Melamchi | 18 | – | – | – |
| 16 | Thapa et al. (2020) | Spring mapping, status, and water quality | Pyuthan, Arghakhachi | Jhimrukh watershed | 102 | 1 | 94 | Water consumption, climate change, anthropogenic stressors |
| 17 | Tiwari et al. (2020) | Springwater quality | Sindhupalchok | Helambu | 57 | – | – | – |
| 18 | Adhikari et al. (2021a) | Spring conservation, policy, and practice | Nepal | 300 local governments | – | 74% of local government | – | Mal-development practice, changing water use pattern, hill migrant influx in emergent towns and cities increasing water stress, limited knowledge of spring hydrogeology, aquifers and recharge zones, fluctuating weather anomalies and natural hazards |
| 19 | Adhikari et al. (2021b) | Spring mapping and status | Surkhet, Dailekh, Achham, Kalikot, Doti, Kailai, Dadheldhura, Pyuthan, Arghakhanchi, Gulmi | Mid and far-western Nepal – 5 watersheds | 4,222 | 1.6 | 70.0 | – |
| 20 | Pradhan & Shrestha (2022) | Distribution modeling | Sankhuwasabha | Khandbari | – | – | – | – |
| 21 | This study | Spring mapping, status, and water quality | Kathmandu | Chandragiri | 140 | 13.57 | 72.14 | Over-extraction of groundwater, increased urbanization, decreasing precipitation |
| S.No. . | References . | Major focus . | District . | Location . | No. of studied springs . | Dried-up springs (%) . | Decreasing discharge (%) . | Potential reason for declining discharge and drying up . |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Merz et al. (2003a, 2003b) | Water scarcity | Kaverpalanchowk | Jhiku Khola | – | – | – | – |
| 2 | Merz et al. (2003a, 2003b) | Water scarcity | Dolakha | Yarsa Khola | – | – | – | – |
| 3 | Dhakal et al. (2021) | Spring mapping, status, and conservation | Lalitpur | Godavari | 40 | 4 | – | Migration of people into the region, the increasing demand for water, long-term decline in rainfall, earthquake |
| 4 | Rijal (2016) | Springshed conservation | Nepal | – | – | – | ||
| 5 | Sharma et al, (2016) | Increasing discharge through research ponds | Kaverpalanchowk | Tinpiple | 70 | 15 | – | Increased water consumption, increased extraction, and reduced recharge, land use and other changes, lack of awareness of the link between recharge and spring flow |
| 6 | Sharma et al. (2016) | Increasing discharge through research ponds | Kaverpalanchowk | Dapcha | 174 | 30 | – | – |
| 7 | Sharma et al. (2016) | Increasing discharge through research ponds | Kaverpalanchowk | Daraune Pokhari | 42 | 45 | – | – |
| 8 | Chapagain et al. (2019) | Spring status and conservation | Sindhupalchok | Melamchi | 412 | 18 | 30 | Late and less winter rainfall, 2015 Earthquake, tunnel construction, haphazard construction of rural roads, decreased effort in water conservation |
| 9 | Poudel & Duex (2017) | Spring status | Nuwakot | Thulokhola watershed | 41 | 12.2 | 73.2 | Declining precipitation |
| 10 | Shrestha et al. (2017) | Reviving springs | Dailekh | Dullu | 106 | – | 19.81 | – |
| 11 | Ghimire et al. (2019) | Spring potential zone mapping | Sindhupalchok | Melamchi | – | – | – | – |
| 12 | Gurung et al. (2019a) | Water scarcity, spring status, and changes | Surkhet, Dadheldhura, Nuwakot, Khotang | – | 20 | – | – | |
| 13 | Gurung et al. (2019b) | Water quality | Surkhet, Dailekh, Achham, Kalikot, Doti, Kailai, Dadheldhura, Pyuthan, Arghakhanchi, Gulmi | Mid and far-western Nepal – 5 watersheds | – | – | – | Reduced infiltration rates in hills, fluctuating rainfall, uncontrolled road building, the disappearance of traditional ponds, lakes, and wallows, rural infrastructure development without environmental concerns, and source concreting and piping |
| 14 | Pandit et al. (2019) | Mapping, classification, water quality | Sindhupalchok | Bansbari | 41 | – | – | – |
| 15 | Khadka & Rijal (2020) | Springwater quality | Sindhupalchok | Melamchi | 18 | – | – | – |
| 16 | Thapa et al. (2020) | Spring mapping, status, and water quality | Pyuthan, Arghakhachi | Jhimrukh watershed | 102 | 1 | 94 | Water consumption, climate change, anthropogenic stressors |
| 17 | Tiwari et al. (2020) | Springwater quality | Sindhupalchok | Helambu | 57 | – | – | – |
| 18 | Adhikari et al. (2021a) | Spring conservation, policy, and practice | Nepal | 300 local governments | – | 74% of local government | – | Mal-development practice, changing water use pattern, hill migrant influx in emergent towns and cities increasing water stress, limited knowledge of spring hydrogeology, aquifers and recharge zones, fluctuating weather anomalies and natural hazards |
| 19 | Adhikari et al. (2021b) | Spring mapping and status | Surkhet, Dailekh, Achham, Kalikot, Doti, Kailai, Dadheldhura, Pyuthan, Arghakhanchi, Gulmi | Mid and far-western Nepal – 5 watersheds | 4,222 | 1.6 | 70.0 | – |
| 20 | Pradhan & Shrestha (2022) | Distribution modeling | Sankhuwasabha | Khandbari | – | – | – | – |
| 21 | This study | Spring mapping, status, and water quality | Kathmandu | Chandragiri | 140 | 13.57 | 72.14 | Over-extraction of groundwater, increased urbanization, decreasing precipitation |