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Some issues of springs have been incorporated into the NWRP. The NWRP aims to identify springs and hot springs throughout the country and make their appropriate uses, protect the identified springs, and prevent and control haphazard solid waste and effluent disposal around water resources including springs. Yet again, the policy to address spring degradation and revival is missing in the NWRP as well. On the one hand, springs are degrading at an alarming rate which has affected both urban and rural livelihoods, and on the other hand, the updated policy and legal instruments are dilute in terms of spring revival and protection. The policies that are intended to operate at the basin and watershed level may not be effective at the springshed level. Therefore, a dedicated policy is necessary for comprehensive but differentiated actions to be operated at the springshed level to curb the spring degradation and water crisis in Nepal. Every published study related to spring status in Nepal has also emphasized the need for a dedicated policy for spring conservation and revival (Sharma et al., 2016; Chapagain et al., 2019; Adhikari et al. 2021b). Some of the aspects that need to be considered while formulating the dedicated policy of spring conservation are given in Table 4.

Table 4

Key considerations for policy and actions to curb spring degradation in Nepal.

Aspects	Considerations	Responsible agencies
Policy change	Springshed approach for water resource conservation Independent water management bodies at central and provincial levels Effective horizontal and vertical coordination mechanism between three tiers of governments and stakeholders Localize land use policy Control migration from rural hills to towns and cities Encourage investment in local water resources from the public and private sectors	Federal, provincial, and local governments
Coping with the crisis (water security)	Use available water efficiently Introduce new forms of water resources management at the watershed scale	Federal, provincial, local governments, private sector investment
Spring revival	Integrate locally available knowledge and scientific information for spring revival Rehabilitate traditional ponds, lakes, wallows, water-recharge ponds, construct conservation ponds, and check dams Increase recharge-establish rainwater harvesting systems, piping rooftop water, and domestic wastewater into a recharge pit Construction of recharge ponds, trenches, and bounds Design and implement Janapratinidhi Pokhari Conservation Programme (one ward – seven pond campaign) Plantation of selected trees species that hold moisture and preserve water source Mobilize tole level organizations (TLOs) and encourage a participatory approach	Wards, local water user organizations, and local communities
Spring protection	Strengthen environmental assessment and adopt mitigation measures for rural development projects Impose restrictions on heavy equipment used in infrastructure development mainly around point sources of water Prohibition on pesticide and chemical fertilizer use around springs Develop the scheme and upstream–downstream mechanism for payment of ecosystem services Improve water quality Development without destruction	Wards, local water user organizations, and local communities
Research	Mapping springs, aquifers, and recharge zones, assess groundwater availability and use Monitor discharge and water quality through a citizen science approach Explore the nexus between the vegetation and springs discharge Establish permanent plots/sites for long-term spring monitoring and research Explore the scientific evidence of the causes of spring degradation Identify scientifically proven methods for spring revival and sustainability	Universities, research institutions, governments, and donors/funding organizations
Capacity building	Strengthen the water management capacity of local governments Increase technical expertise Pani Heralu (Water Watchers) Community capacity building for water sustainability and climate change adaptation Train young professionals as trainers in recharge pond construction	Federal, provincial, and local stakeholders
Knowledge sharing and awareness	Spring conservation and revival in school and college curriculums Document and promote traditional knowledge and best practices	Wards, local water user organizations, and local communities

Aspects	Considerations	Responsible agencies
Policy change	Springshed approach for water resource conservation Independent water management bodies at central and provincial levels Effective horizontal and vertical coordination mechanism between three tiers of governments and stakeholders Localize land use policy Control migration from rural hills to towns and cities Encourage investment in local water resources from the public and private sectors	Federal, provincial, and local governments
Coping with the crisis (water security)	Use available water efficiently Introduce new forms of water resources management at the watershed scale	Federal, provincial, local governments, private sector investment
Spring revival	Integrate locally available knowledge and scientific information for spring revival Rehabilitate traditional ponds, lakes, wallows, water-recharge ponds, construct conservation ponds, and check dams Increase recharge-establish rainwater harvesting systems, piping rooftop water, and domestic wastewater into a recharge pit Construction of recharge ponds, trenches, and bounds Design and implement Janapratinidhi Pokhari Conservation Programme (one ward – seven pond campaign) Plantation of selected trees species that hold moisture and preserve water source Mobilize tole level organizations (TLOs) and encourage a participatory approach	Wards, local water user organizations, and local communities
Spring protection	Strengthen environmental assessment and adopt mitigation measures for rural development projects Impose restrictions on heavy equipment used in infrastructure development mainly around point sources of water Prohibition on pesticide and chemical fertilizer use around springs Develop the scheme and upstream–downstream mechanism for payment of ecosystem services Improve water quality Development without destruction	Wards, local water user organizations, and local communities
Research	Mapping springs, aquifers, and recharge zones, assess groundwater availability and use Monitor discharge and water quality through a citizen science approach Explore the nexus between the vegetation and springs discharge Establish permanent plots/sites for long-term spring monitoring and research Explore the scientific evidence of the causes of spring degradation Identify scientifically proven methods for spring revival and sustainability	Universities, research institutions, governments, and donors/funding organizations
Capacity building	Strengthen the water management capacity of local governments Increase technical expertise Pani Heralu (Water Watchers) Community capacity building for water sustainability and climate change adaptation Train young professionals as trainers in recharge pond construction	Federal, provincial, and local stakeholders
Knowledge sharing and awareness	Spring conservation and revival in school and college curriculums Document and promote traditional knowledge and best practices	Wards, local water user organizations, and local communities

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