Aliquots of MS2 or FRNAPH stocks were spiked into the raw water feed volume (150 L) to obtain a target density range of 10⁶–10⁷ pfu/ml and mixed for 30 min. The raw water was then subjected to continuous treatment by pumping with inline injection of 50 mg/L PACl (PAX-XL 19, Kemira, USA) coagulant followed by the passage through an inline static mixer (1/2-N40-172-0, Noritake Co. Ltd., Japan) at a constant flow rate (500 ml/min). The coagulant-treated feedwater was then immediately filtered through the ceramic membrane MF (monolithic membrane, pore size 0.1 μm, membrane area 0.084 m², summarized in Table 2) at a flux of 2.5 m/day (=m³/m²/day) to simulate full-scale operational conditions at a water treatment plant. Filtrates were collected every 15 min with a total of four treated samples collected during the course of experimentation. Raw feedwater samples were collected concurrently with the filtrate samples to measure virus concentrations during experimentation. A backwash cycle (water and air for 1 min) was conducted following each spike assessment to clean and restore the condition of the membrane.