Abstract
Access to adequate and secure sanitation to prevent and reduce disease occurrence and improve people's health has been a longstanding global concern. Toilet standardization is immensely important for the promotion of sanitation in China. At present, China has more than 200 toilet-related standards, including national, industrial, provincial, association, and enterprise standards. In addition, there are many existing problems with the standard system, such as standards lagging, standards deficiency, and cross-repetition of standards content. This study analyzed the toilet standards utilizing a six-dimensional structure of the standardized system engineering methodology. A framework for the toilet standard system, which consists of six components, is proposed: basic general standard, public toilet standard, household toilet standard, toilet hardware standard, environmental health and safety standard, and toilet accessory standard and standard toilet peripherals. Additionally, the study suggests approaches for improving standardization including cultivating and developing association and enterprise standards, establishing a standardization technical committee, strengthening standard publicizing and implementation, and linkages with international standards.
HIGHLIGHTS
A six-level framework of the toilet standard system in China is presented and elaborated.
Problems and potential barriers for toilet standardization in China are analyzed.
We suggest establishing a technical standardization committee, standardization organization coordination mechanism, etc. to promote toilet standardization.
This study provides insights that will guide the formation of effective policies and strategies to enhance sanitation in China.
INTRODUCTION
China has been committed to the toilet revolution aimed at achieving ‘access to improved sanitation infrastructure’, which is crucial for human and environmental health as well as social and economic growth (Zhang et al. 2020a). A sustainable sanitation system not only strengthens the comfort, access, practicality, safety, hygiene, and pleasure of toilets but also maximizes resource recovery from treatment and management of fecal sludge (Chu 2020). Currently, toilets are being built and retrofitted in all regions of China, leading to a yearly increase in their numbers. By the end of 2022, the coverage rate of rural sanitary toilets nationwide was over 73%. Technologies, products, services, and processes for toilets should strictly adhere to specified standards to ensure consistency, replicability, scalability, reliability, specificity, and functionality in their design, construction, installation, operation, maintenance, and servicing (Gasiorowski-Denis 2018). This is crucial to guarantee that toilets are safe for health and the environment. The standardized construction of toilets is essential to ensure quality standards in their construction, management, and service. Adequate and appropriate toilet standards provide theoretical guidance for toilet construction and management.
Zhang et al. (2020b) analyzed the existing rural toilet standards in China and established a standard system for rural toilets from three levels: basic, general, and special. In July 2020, the State Administration for Market Regulation (SAMR), the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs (MARA), and the National Health Commission (NHC) issued guidelines on promoting the development of a standard system for rural household toilets. They proposed the framework for a standard system for rural household toilets, including comprehensive general facilities and equipment, acceptance of construction, and administration and maintenance procedures. This system facilitates the standardization of rural toilets in China. China has not established a comprehensive system of toilet standard systems to regulate the standardization of toilets. The establishment of a toilet standard system can better coordinate the management of toilet standards, promote the formulation and revision of toilet standards, and provide guidance for the building, operation, and maintenance of toilets. It will help establish a clean, safe, comfortable, and convenient sanitation system, thus promoting environmental protection and ecological civilization construction. Based on China's toilet revolution and standard status, this study establishes a toilet standard system and puts forward suggestions for promoting China's toilet standardization.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Standards, as defined by the Standardization Law, are technical criteria that need to be aligned across different sectors such as agriculture, industry, service industry, and social endeavors. Standardization entails the development and application of standards, and oversees their creation and execution. It offers an optimum framework for standards and oversees compliance. The standard system is a scientifically integrated entity consisting of interconnected standards within a specified scope. This study focuses on China's existing toilet standards and investigates them comprehensively. We obtained data and standards on toilet systems in China from the National Standards Information Public Service Platform (https://std.samr.gov.cn/) and the China Health Statistics Yearbook. We obtained 208 toilet-related standards and synthesized them using a three-dimensional structure of standardized systems engineering methodology (Muller 2013). The structure was optimized with process management theory (Lin & Ming 2007). Optimization is carried out through process description, process diagnosis, process design, process implementation, and process maintenance. These steps are organized into a six-dimensional framework, which includes professional dimension, sequence dimension, hierarchy dimension, level dimension, property dimension, and attribute dimension. A framework structure for the toilet standard system was built by integrating hierarchical dimensions, professional dimensions, and sequence dimensions, along with its associated list (details are listed in Section 5). Finally, suggestions and strategies for promoting toilet standardization were put forward.
TOILET CONSTRUCTION AND TOILET STANDARDIZATION IN CHINA
Toilet construction in China
With the advancement of the toilet revolution in China, the number of rural retrofitted toilets has increased over the past years. According to the China Health Statistics Yearbook, the coverage rate of safe sanitary toilets1 in rural areas of China from 1999 to 2017 has increased yearly. However, in the absence of normative standards, some problems exist in toilet retrofitting (Ma et al. 2021), such as unscientific planning and design, large capital investment, low participation of farmers, insufficient management and maintenance, and underutilization of feces resources.
Urban public toilets are an important part of urban infrastructure, and environmental sanitation in public areas is significant for personal hygiene and public health (Moreira et al. 2021). When designing public toilets, it is important to consider the surroundings, user experience, peripheral facilities, and feces management (Yan et al. 2021). Public toilets include rural, tourist, school, hospital, transportation, and emergency toilets. There is also a large shortage of public toilets in traffic areas, such as roads and expressway service stations, which may be unmanaged (Patrick et al. 2021). Considering this, the elements of the normative content of human rights to water and sanitation in public spaces, namely, availability, accessibility, affordability, acceptability, safety, and quality, proposed by the United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) in 2019 were considered (UNGA 2019; Moreira et al. 2021). The objective of constructing public toilets in China is to have a well-planned layout, systematic design, high-quality construction, user-friendly facilities, diverse functions, meticulous management, and eco-friendliness. Hence, it is essential to establish uniform standards for the building, maintenance, and utilization of public toilets.
Status of toilet standardization in China
Chronology of toilet standardization in China
Year . | Related activity . |
---|---|
1987 | 1. Hygienic standard for harmless disposal of night soil (GB 7959-1987) was first launched on June 8, 1987. It was revised in 2012 and renamed as Hygienic requirements for harmless disposal of night soil (GB 7959-2012). |
2. Planning and design standard of urban public toilet (CJJ 14-1987) was launched on December 2, 1987, and revised twice. The latest version was in 2016, and it was renamed as Design standard of urban public toilet (CJJ 14-2016) and is currently under revision. | |
1998 | Hygienic standard of urban public toilet (GB/T 17217-1998) was first launched on January 21,1998, revised in 2021 and renamed as Hygienic specification for public toilet (GB/T 17217-2021). |
2003 | 1. Classification and evaluation of tourism toilets (GB/T 18973-2003) was first launched on February 2,2003, revised in 2016 and 2022, and renamed as Quality requirements and evaluation of tourism toilets (GB/T 18973-2022). |
2. Hygiene standard for rural household latrine (GB 19379-2003) was launched on November 10, 2003, revised in 2012 and renamed as Hygienic specification for rural household latrine (GB 19379-2012). | |
2019 | Specification for the construction and management of public toilet in rural area (GB/T 38353-2019) was launched for the first time. |
2020 | A series of national rural household toilet standards (GB/T 38836-2020, GB/T 38837-2020, GB/T 38838-2020) were launched. |
Non-sewered sanitary toilets – prefabricated integrated treatment units – general safety and performance requirements were issued in January 2020 and adopted ISO 30500:2018. At present, the standard has completed the solicitation of comments and is being reviewed by the Standardization Administration. | |
2022 | China proposed to adopt the international standard ISO 31800:2020. A national standard proposal has been approved by SAC, so the new standard is under preparation. |
Year . | Related activity . |
---|---|
1987 | 1. Hygienic standard for harmless disposal of night soil (GB 7959-1987) was first launched on June 8, 1987. It was revised in 2012 and renamed as Hygienic requirements for harmless disposal of night soil (GB 7959-2012). |
2. Planning and design standard of urban public toilet (CJJ 14-1987) was launched on December 2, 1987, and revised twice. The latest version was in 2016, and it was renamed as Design standard of urban public toilet (CJJ 14-2016) and is currently under revision. | |
1998 | Hygienic standard of urban public toilet (GB/T 17217-1998) was first launched on January 21,1998, revised in 2021 and renamed as Hygienic specification for public toilet (GB/T 17217-2021). |
2003 | 1. Classification and evaluation of tourism toilets (GB/T 18973-2003) was first launched on February 2,2003, revised in 2016 and 2022, and renamed as Quality requirements and evaluation of tourism toilets (GB/T 18973-2022). |
2. Hygiene standard for rural household latrine (GB 19379-2003) was launched on November 10, 2003, revised in 2012 and renamed as Hygienic specification for rural household latrine (GB 19379-2012). | |
2019 | Specification for the construction and management of public toilet in rural area (GB/T 38353-2019) was launched for the first time. |
2020 | A series of national rural household toilet standards (GB/T 38836-2020, GB/T 38837-2020, GB/T 38838-2020) were launched. |
Non-sewered sanitary toilets – prefabricated integrated treatment units – general safety and performance requirements were issued in January 2020 and adopted ISO 30500:2018. At present, the standard has completed the solicitation of comments and is being reviewed by the Standardization Administration. | |
2022 | China proposed to adopt the international standard ISO 31800:2020. A national standard proposal has been approved by SAC, so the new standard is under preparation. |
The number of current standards for toilets at all levels over the years.
PROBLEMS WITH THE TOILET STANDARD IN CHINA
Lagging standards and hindering the application of technology and products
With the development of the toilet revolution, several innovative toilet technologies and achievements are gradually emerging. Therefore, the standardization of technologies and achievements and then applying and popularizing them are crucial. In China, the national, industrial, and provincial standards follow a government-led standard compilation process that involves standardization, compilation, soliciting opinions, and compilation completion to final review and release, which generally take a considerable amount of time. This situation is not suitable for the popularization and application of new technologies and products. Moreover, the average formulation period of national standards is 3 years, which lags far behind the toilet development speed and is not conducive to toilet upgrading. The content of standards for more than 5 years should be actively reviewed, and lagging standards should be promptly updated.
Lack of standards and unbalanced development
Currently, the development of toilet standards in China is unbalanced, and the supply gap is still large. The conventional sanitation concept, which relies on flushing toilets and sewer systems, is a water-consuming and water-wasting technology. Moreover, the technology wastes nutrients in excrement, which can be recycled for agriculture. Such a technology also uses a lot of water, which can lead to an overflow problem and related water pollution during a rainstorm in the combined sewer system (Borsuk et al. 2008). Therefore, China pays increasing attention to the innovation and development of toilet technology. Some new toilets, such as circulating water flushing toilets, vacuum toilets, and composting toilets, have been applied in specific areas of the market. However, no standard exists to guide their construction and management. Most of the current standards focus on the construction of the toilet and the lack of attention and supplement to excrement treatment and new technologies. Only by filling these gaps can the toilet standards system be more balanced and comprehensive.
Cross-repetition of standard content and poor coordination of standards
Various government departments are involved in toilet management in China. They include the NHC (responsible for rural toilet retrofitting), the Ministry of Culture and Tourism (responsible for tourist toilets), MOHURD (responsible for urban public toilets), SAMR (responsible for toilet-related products), and the Ministry of Ecology and Environment (responsible for toilet excrement). Industrial toilet standards cover urban construction, light industry, tourism, civil aviation, transportation, environmental protection, civil affairs, public security, building materials, and others. Toilet standards have consistent material throughout many levels. For example, the planning standard of urban environmental sanitation facilities (GB/T 50337-2018) and the standard for environmental sanitation facilities setting (CJJ 27-2012) specify the spacing and density of public toilets. Although they share similar content, CJJ 27-2012 provides more detailed information. Hand cleaner (GB/T 34855-2017) and (QB/T 2654-2013) have the same core content and management department for hand sanitizer products, but they differ in standard level.
DEVELOPMENT OF A TOILET STANDARD SYSTEM IN CHINA
The dimension division of the six-dimensional methodological structure model of the toilet standard system.
The dimension division of the six-dimensional methodological structure model of the toilet standard system.
The framework of the toilet standard system in China (traffic toilet: toilets in traffic areas or transportation facilities, such as those in Highway Service Areas, high-speed trains, airplanes, and ships).
The framework of the toilet standard system in China (traffic toilet: toilets in traffic areas or transportation facilities, such as those in Highway Service Areas, high-speed trains, airplanes, and ships).
Basic general toilet standard
Toilets must adhere to fundamental standards such as terminology, graphic symbols, signage, classification, functional division, and other vital standards. The term standard refers to a set of terms and definitions to help coordinate the language used in the relevant sector. At present, there is just one industrial standard, Standard for figure symbols of environmental sanitation (CJJ/T 125-2008), which applies to the planning, design, and management of urban environmental sanitation facilities. This industrial standard specifies figure signs, facility legend, mechanical figure symbols, and equipment and emergency figure signs of public toilets. Various types of toilets are represented by specific symbols. The delay and insufficiency of the current standard are becoming more evident due to China's toilet revolution and the introduction of new toilets and related items. The standard has to be updated, and new fundamental general standards for toilets need to be created and released to address the current gap in this field.
Public toilet standard
Sanitation does not rest solely in the private domain but is a part of a broader social fabric (Tilley et al. 2013). Public toilets mainly consist of urban, rural, tourist, school, hospital, traffic, and emergency toilets. The design and construction of urban public toilets in China should abide by the Standard for design of urban public toilets (CJJ 14-2016). At the end of 2019, the Standardization Administration of China (SAC) issued the national standard for rural public toilets, titled the Specification for construction and management of public toilets in rural area (GB/T 38353-2019). This standard outlines the requirements for the construction, management and maintenance, service quality, as well as the quality of service and ongoing enhancement of rural public toilets. Quality requirements and evaluation of tourism toilets (GB/T 18973-2022) categorize tourist toilets into two groups based on quality requirements and evaluation. Many provincial regulations for public toilets focus on building and management standards; however, not all provinces have established these guidelines. There are only provincial standards about school toilets, such as the Specification for the renovation and construction of standardized school buildings in rural primary and secondary schools: school toilets (DB37/T 2732-2015). The quality of school toilets is an issue in many countries, with the school toilet environment affecting the health of students, and studies have shown that unsatisfactory toilet facilities and toilet visit postponement can cause bladder and bowel dysfunction (Jorgensen et al. 2021). At present, the national, industrial, and provincial standards for hospital toilets have not been issued. Unified national management guidelines for constructing various types of public toilets are necessary to provide guidance for provinces and industry. Locally, it is necessary to set and enhance standards for school and hospital toilets. It is important to recognize the differences in toilet types while creating toilet standards and to create specific requirements for each type.
Household toilet standard
Household toilet standards are categorized into rural household toilets and residential bathrooms. In 2020, the MARA proposed three standards for rural household toilets, two of which were specifically proposed for the construction of three-chamber household latrines in rural areas. The documents are the Technical specification for construction of rural household latrine with three-chamber septic tank (GB/T 38836-2020), Specification for the operation and maintenance of rural household latrine with three-chamber septic tank (GB/T 38837-2020), and Technical specification for the construction of rural household latrine connected to a sewer system (GB/T 38838-2020). The rural toilet standard aims to provide scientific guidance for constructing sanitary toilets in rural regions and ensuring proper administration and maintenance. Some studies have evaluated the effect of toilet upgrades in rural areas of China and found that the safety level of renovated toilets did not meet the standard requirements (Gao et al. 2022). Therefore, it is essential to constantly establish and improve the standard system for renovating rural toilets. The quality, construction, and acceptance level of toilets should be closely monitored to prevent environmental pollution and irregular operation due to subpar toilet quality.
There are two national standards for residential bathrooms. The Functions and dimensions series of bathrooms in housing (GB/T 11977-2008) outlines the scope, vocabulary, definitions, categorization, labeling, and standards for the functions and dimensions of bathrooms in residential dwellings. Fixtures for bathroom (GB/T 12956-2008) specifies the terms, definitions, classifications, materials, technical requirements, and installation requirements of water closet equipment.
Toilet hardware standard
Toilet hardware standards are categorized into two parts: the overall toilet and toilet sanitary ware. The overall toilet includes water-free sanitary toilet, vacuum toilet, and others. Toilet sanitary wares mainly include toilet bowl, squatting device, and urinal. This standard is distinguished by focusing on the toilet itself. At present, these standards are more comprehensive, national standards, industry standards, and group standards available for the design, building, and maintenance of toilets, which should be consulted for guidance.
Environmental sanitation and environmental protection standard
Environmental sanitation and environmental protection refer to the collection, storage, transportation, treatment, and disposal of fecal sludge. Collection and storage mainly involve septic tank standards, transportation involves sewage suction truck standards, and treatment includes nocturnal soil treatment plants, nocturnal soil disposal stations, and others. Some researchers and entrepreneurs are exploring alternative applications for fecal sludge, considering the final product from the beginning and not just public health (Wald 2017). However, the standards for the recycling of fecal sludge and the utilization of products have not been officially released yet. Moreover, fecal sludge is a part of solid waste, and solid waste management has always been one of the main challenges faced by developing countries (Gunaki & Devaraj 2021). Converting waste into energy is the most effective approach for fecal waste management (Khan et al. 2022). The methods of collecting, storing, transporting, treating, and disposing of these wastes will again pose risks to environmental balance and public health. Solid waste management infrastructure and services do not meet the fundamental standards for sanitation, effective collection, and disposal (Gunaki & Devaraj 2021). Despite the focus on environmental protection in China, there is ample opportunity for the development and improvement of this aspect of the standards.
Toilet peripheral standards
Toilet in a broad sense not only refers to the toilet hardware but also includes some necessary peripherals, which are also essential for consumables, such as toilet paper, detergent, disinfectant, and hand sanitizer. Among them, the toilet paper standard needs to be improved. Given the risk of the virus spreading through feces, some cities in China have mandated the removal of trash cans from public toilets, and they advised users to flush used toilet paper into toilet stools. Toilet paper that is not easily degraded might cause blockages in pipes or sewers, leading to more frequent toilet maintenance. 82% of toilet paper products in China lacked washability guidelines, compared to 77% in the United States (Sun & Han 2021). Therefore, enhancing the washability and degradability of toilet paper are further issues that should be addressed in the standard. Studies have shown (Ishida et al. 2021) that the toilet bowl, wall, and floor of the toilet contain fecal bacteria. The bacteria cause odor and are pathogenic. In addition, sufficient toilet paper and detergent should be provided to improve and strengthen toilet hygiene quality (Wu et al. 2019). This part of the standard is crucial for indirectly guaranteeing the completion of the toilet process.
SUGGESTIONS ON PROMOTING THE STANDARDIZATION OF TOILETS IN CHINA
Cultivate and develop association and enterprise standards
The ‘National Standardization Development Outline’ produced by the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China and the State Council aims to shift the standardization paradigm from being government-led to a more government- and market-oriented approach by the year 2025. Association and enterprise standards are voluntary standards that the market independently develops in response to market demand (Wang et al. 2020). An association standard-setting cycle lasting 3–6 months can efficiently adapt to the rapid evolution of new products and technologies to suit market demands. Enterprise standards can capitalize on the benefits of organizations and encourage the development of toilet technology based on demand.
Establish a standardization technical committee and the coordination mechanism of the standardization organization
To strengthen the construction and management standardization of rural toilets, MARA has established a technical committee for the construction and management standardization of rural toilets. The committee consists of 27 members (MARA 2020). This committee is responsible for coordinating the forces of all parties and expediting the completion of the shortcomings of the standard system of rural toilets. In addition to the committee set-up for the management of rural toilets, a technical committee for the standardization of public toilets should also be established to promote the standardization of public toilets. An authoritative and effective standardized coordination and promotion structure should be established to facilitate cross-integration among various standardization technical committees across industries and disciplines. Efficiency in standardization management must be enhanced by avoiding redundant standards and eliminating those that do not align with industry development requirements. Additionally, redundant standards need to be organized, and the National Standardization Administration Committee's unified and coordinated administration should be employed.
Connect with international standards, learn from foreign advanced standards, and promote Chinese standards
The strategy for deepening the reform of standardization work requires international standardization exchanges and cooperation to improve the internationalization level of Chinese standards (State Council 2015). By 2021, five countries had implemented ISO 31800:2020 standards (Fecal sludge treatment units – Energy independent, prefabricated, community-scale, resource recovery units – Safety and performance requirements). In addition, more than 28 countries have adopted ISO 30500:2018 standards (Non-sewered sanitation systems – Prefabricated integrated treatment units – General safety and performance requirements for design and testing), which is one of the first international technical standards to address sustainability issues beyond product requirements (Starkl et al. 2018). However, countries with limited safely managed sanitation services, such as China, India, and Indonesia, have not adopted ISO 30500:2018 or ISO 31800:2020 (Cid et al. 2022). In addition, international toilet sanitation technologies such as the Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies (Tilley et al. 2014) should also be considered. Therefore, scientific research institutions, social organizations, and enterprises in the field of toilet and environmental sanitation should engage in international standardization operations to enhance China's standards.
CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS
The study developed a framework for a toilet standard system by combining existing toilet standards and system engineering theory. The framework includes categories such as basic general, public toilet, household toilet, toilet hardware, environmental sanitation, environmental protection, and toilet peripherals. This study examined the existing problems in the standard system, focusing on standard delays, lack of standards, and cross-repetition of standard content. Furthermore, the study proposed recommendations for standardization work. Examples include cultivating and developing association and enterprise standards, establishing a standardization technical committee, establishing the coordination mechanism of standardization organizations, improving standard service capacity, and connecting with international standards. This study focused on the top-level design of the standard system and did not adequately include comments from practitioners and users regarding the toilet standard, which should be taken into account in future studies.
This study provides theoretical guidance for the construction of the entire toilet system. Adhering to high Chinese toilet standards is of great significance in promoting the development of social civilization, safeguarding public health, and limiting the spread of infectious diseases.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This study was supported by the National Key Research and Development Plan (2018YFC1903206) and the Natural Science Foundation of China (52261145693). The authors would like to take this opportunity to express our sincere appreciation for the support of National Environmental and Energy Science and Technology International Cooperation Base.
DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT
All relevant data are included in the paper or its Supplementary Information.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The authors declare there is no conflict.
Safe sanitary toilets refers to harmless sanitary toilets with facilities to effectively reduce the infectivity of biological pathogenic factors in feces when used in accordance with the requirements of the regulations, including three-chamber septic tank toilets, double-urn funnel-type toilets, biogas-linked toilets, urine-diverting toilets, double-pit alternate toilets, and integrated flushing toilets with complete sewer systems and sewage treatment facilities. Sanitary toilet refers to a toilet room (with walls and roof) that is clean, no maggots, odorless, septic tank non-leakage, closed with cover, timely removal of feces, and harmless treatment.
std.samr.gov.cn (accessed 20 June 2022).