Sustainable management of small-town water supply in Nepal: improvement through the multi-stage training mechanism Open Access

Numerous initiatives in Nepal are currently underway to achieve Sustainable Development Goal 6 (SDG 6) by 2030 through the water sector. However, the path to this goal is far from straightforward. In 2022, 92% of the population in Nepal had access to basic-level water supply. In contrast, only 14% enjoyed access to a safely managed water supply with safe water quality (WHO & UNICEF 2023). It is worth noting that, despite piped water supply facilities being available for 50% of the population, there remain challenges in achieving the desired operation and maintenance (O&M) capacity and quality of service. Thus, the Ministry of Water Supply and Sanitation has prepared a long-term Sector Development Plan by identifying priority areas for future interventions and several thematic approaches to achieve water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) sector targets by 2030 (Budhathoki 2019).

More than 42,000 water supply facilities have been constructed in rural areas and small towns in Nepal through the cooperation of the Government of Nepal and various development partners. Most water supply facilities in rural areas are small, have simple structures, are often supplied by public taps, and have relatively simple maintenance systems. In contrast, most water supply facilities in small towns are relatively large, usually providing water to individual households equipped with electrical systems, and the maintenance and management systems are more complex. The responsibility for the O&M of these small-town water supply systems was transferred to the Water User and Sanitation Committee (WUSC) (Shah & Aryal 2006). WUSCs are required to provide water to users in sufficient quantities, control the water quality, collect water tariffs, and manage human and financial resources to maintain water facilities in good condition. However, not all WUSCs possess the capacity for effectively managing the O&M of water supply facilities. The challenges related to water supply in small towns include inadequate water utility management, lack of knowledge and skills among WUSC staff, insufficient human resources, inadequate water quality, and unreliable supply. A study conducted by Ogata et al. (2019) in 26 towns across Nepal showed wide gaps in performance indicators such as staff and operating ratios even among towns within Nepal. The study also pointed out that in more than half of the targeted towns, the cost of O&M was not covered by the water tariff. A total of 55% of urban water samples collected from household taps are contaminated with Escherichia coli (Ogata et al. 2019). Consequently, instances of fecal contamination of drinking water and waterborne disease outbreaks are frequently reported, especially during the monsoon season (Aryal et al. 2012).

Challenges in small-town water supply were reported in Nepal and also reported through studies conducted in African countries such as Ethiopia, Mozambique, Nigeria, and Ghana (Eguavoen & Youkhana 2008; Abdisa & Reddy 2014; Sule et al. 2016; Taviani et al. 2022). These studies similarly discussed that the deterioration of water supply services was caused by inadequate water supply facility management. Meanwhile, Ogata et al. (2022) showed that improving the quality of water services has the potential to improve the financial performance of water utilities, indicating that it is key to the sustainability of small-town water supplies. Ghosh et al. (2022) highlighted inequality in access to improved drinking water and sanitation across different geographical areas in India. Their study underscored the imperative of addressing these inequalities.

According to the results of the literature review, most of the previous studies analyzed the current status of water supply in small towns and made recommendations for improvement, while only a limited number of studies actually implemented the expected methods and included results based on specific improvement activities.

The agency responsible for the capacity building of WUSCs for small-town water supply was the Department of Water Supply and Sewerage Management (DWSSM), the central governmental organization of Nepal. However, the DWSSM mainly focused on infrastructure construction and did not significantly engage in activities related to capacity building for O&M done by WUSCs. In addition, DWSSM had limited organizational capacity to conduct training for the WUSC on the O&M of water supply facilities, which they had to acquire in addition to the design and construction of water supply facilities.

In response to this gap, a technical cooperation project, ‘Capacity development project for the improvement of water supply management in semi-urban areas’, was implemented with the support of the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) from January 2010 to September 2013. The primary objective of this project was to strengthen the O&M capacity of water supply facilities managed by WUSCs, and during this project, two distinctive models were developed: the ‘Small and Medium Sized Water Supply Management’ and ‘Small and Medium Sized Water Supply Support’ models. The ‘Small and Medium Sized Water Supply Management’ model was developed for the capacity development of WUSCs and serves as a guideline for the proper O&M of water supply facilities. It consists of standard operating procedures (SOPs) for the O&M of water treatment plants and distribution systems, water quality management, and water meter reading. Additionally, it includes business plans for water supply service management. The ‘Small and Medium Sized Water Supply Support’ model represents guidelines provided by the DWSSM to WUSCs for technical and financial support. The DWSSM recognized the importance of these models in maintaining a sustainable and functional water supply system, making them integral tools for the ‘Water Supply Operation Directives’ developed in 2012. However, it is worth noting that other than the selected three pilot WUSCs, the models were not fully implemented. Therefore, there was a pressing need to systematically expand efforts to strengthen WUSCs O&M for small-town water supply. Consequently, the Government of Nepal, with support from the JICA, implemented a project to improve and maintain water services, including safe water supplies, in small towns in Nepal from 2016 to 2022.

The research question of this study is ‘What specific structures and activities would be effective in implementing capacity building for small-town water supply?’ Consequently, the objective was to enhance the development and refinement of small-town water supply by analyzing the results obtained from a case study of a technical cooperation project in Nepal. This case study delved into the challenges, effective approaches utilized, and the degree of achievement.

To enhance the Support Model, the project adopted the following strategies: (1) establishing necessary training based on the current condition of support/training for WUSCs, (2) conducting training of trainers (ToT), (3) formulating training plans, (4) implementing training, and (5) training evaluation and feedback collection. Specifically, a guideline for training by the National Water Supply and Sanitation Training Center (NWSSTC) was prepared with a training plan, lecture contents, and curriculum. A design manual of specifications on rehabilitation works for target WUSCs in small towns was prepared in English and Nepali. ToT materials for on-site training in English and Nepali were prepared with PowerPoint. Finally, a management checklist for the DWSSM for self-evaluation of the WUSCs was prepared.

The revised Management Model has yielded several notable effects. Firstly, SOPs became more applicable to rural WUSCs as the developed model considers various water sources and topographies. Secondly, it brought clarity to O&M work procedures, making them user-friendly in the field. Thirdly, the development of design manuals has facilitated the restoration of the necessary functions of water supply facilities. Lastly, the cumulative effect of the above-mentioned improvements facilitated the smooth implementation of various training programs conducted through the Support Model.

Similarly, the revision of the Support Model also demonstrated several positive outcomes. Firstly, the quality of lectures has been improved by increasing the number of training instructors. Secondly, the development of an equipment installation manual has enabled the effective provision of equipment for functional recovery. Thirdly, the Support Model has contributed to the smooth implementation of various training programs.

In addition, training to improve the Support Model produced the following results for the DWSSM and the NWSSTC, which were positioned to support WUSCs. First, the number of instructors with skills to train WUSCs has increased. Second, training skills (teaching and facilitation) were improved, and a training implementation system was established. Third, the increased number of visits to WUSC sites allowed the staff of the DWSSM and the NWSSTC to better understand the problems that occurred at WUSCs and how they could be resolved. On the other hand, the number of training opportunities for WUSC staff resulted in the following positive outcomes: WUSC staff improved their capacity to conduct appropriate O&M of the facilities, keep records of facility operations, and procure necessary equipment, and they obtained more opportunities for direct dialogue with the DWSSM and the NWSSTC.

The key performance indicator (KPI) development activities substantially improved the rate of missing data related to the WUSC's water services. Specifically, as of 2016, only 38% of the data for the KPI calculations were available. However, 90% of the data are available in 2020, and 99% of the data are available in 2021. In addition to the collection, recording, and calculation of KPI data, one of the major results of the KPI development activities was the establishment of an environment in which data could be collected through the installation of equipment and an increased understanding of the importance of recording and analyzing data in the management of water supply facilities.

Meanwhile, differences were observed in the achievements of the KPI among the towns. In 2021, water supply coverage, NRW ratio, and operating ratio ranged widely, spanning from 15 to 97%, 5.7 to 28.7%, and 0.27 to 5.72, respectively. While many towns achieved a 100% compliance rate with water quality standards, five towns reported a 0% compliance.

The description of the sustainability after the project completion is as follows. At the end of the project, the self-assessed competence of trainers improved by 0.34–0.4 points on a five-point scale compared with the first half of the project. For the training venue, the NWSSTC has its training center with accommodations and is continuing to conduct training using materials prepared by the project. In addition, 36 trainers at the DWSSM or the NWSSTC who were trained during the project are conducting the training even after the project's completion. The training is regularly conducted and institutionalized by the NWSSTC in accordance with the training implementation guidelines, and the trainers or the staff of the DWSSM visit the sites and conduct monitoring. Regarding budgetary and institutional responsibilities, the DWSSM has been allocating a certain budget for training activities aimed at WUSCs. These activities are facilitated by the NWSSTC with the aim of capacity enhancement. Currently, the WASH database and benchmarking WUSCs are prioritized tasks for the NWSSTC.

We explored the suitability of the methodology employed in this project and assessed the attained results in comparison to findings from other studies focused on small-town water supply.

Regarding the methodology, the project focused on establishing an effective capacity-building system from both directions, improving the O&M capacity of WUSC facilities, and building a support system by the DWSSM. The approach meets the reported situation of other studies on small-town water supply in Nepal (Ogata et al. 2019), Ghana (Eguavoen & Youkhana 2008), and Nigeria (Nwosah 2003) that one of the most critical problems of small-town water supply was insufficient management capacity of the water supply facilities. Specifically, Eguavoen & Youkhana (2008) highlighted the lack of technical capacity and expertise of O&M staff in small-town water supply and the need for support and supervision by government agencies with technical capacity and support for the appropriateness of the methodology of this project.

Next, regarding the results of water quality status, WUSCs improved the water quality and 87% of the samples met the water quality standard of Nepal, including the standard value of free residual chlorine. Several studies highlighted that one of the most critical problems in small-town water supply was the water quality (Aryal et al. 2012; Ogata et al. 2019; Taviani et al. 2022). They found fecal contamination in supplied water in small towns, and outbreaks of waterborne diseases were also reported by one study (Aryal et al. 2012). Subsequently, following this, the attainment of safely managed water, a crucial indicator for realizing SDG 6.1 in Nepal, stood at a mere 14% in 2022 (WHO & UNICEF 2023). In this regard, it can be argued that the project demonstrated good practice for future improvements toward achieving SDG 6.1 in Nepal.

Some studies (Ogata et al. 2019; Ghosh et al. 2022) also mentioned the differences in the water supply status in different geographic areas. Ghosh et al. (2022) showed disparities in access rates to improved WASH facilities by geographical space as well as social groups. However, this study only monitored the town-level status, and it suggested the necessity of monitoring for equity in the different social groups for future activity. Ogata et al. (2019) also found significant differences in KPI achievement across the target towns, and staff ratios, number of connections, water supply coverages, and metered ratio significantly correlated with operating ratios. The results might indicate that in small-town water supplies, including the target towns of this study, the sustainability and achievement of KPIs can also be affected by economies of scale.

Finally, management issues have been specified as a serious problem for the small-scale piped water supply (Ameyaw Effah et al. 2015; JICA 2018; Ogata et al. 2019). According to Ogata et al. (2019), 14 out of 26 towns in Nepal showed financial status such that they had more expenditures than the annual income, and O&M expenditures were 1.3 times higher than the income on average. In the target areas of this project, they achieved a financial improvement by the end of the project, wherein the expenditures became 0.88 times higher than the annual income. This result can be attributed to the improved quality of O&M at the facilities through the introduction of SOPs, feedback through KPI calculation, and the bolstered water supply service resulting from staff capacity building through ongoing training programs. Therefore, it could be said that the results of this project indicated certain solutions for the management of water supply in small towns.

The limitations of the study are as follows. First, it cannot be completely denied that the improvements in small-town water supply shown in this study may have been influenced by factors beyond the scope of the targeted project. In addition, the sustainability statements cover the period up to the project completion, potentially leading to inadequate monitoring of sustainability thereafter.

Managing small-town water systems is inherently more challenging than large-city water supplies owing to the dynamics of scale and the capacity of engineers. These challenges have the potential to significantly impact the quality of water services, affecting aspects such as water supply time and quality. These, in turn, affect customer satisfaction and willingness to pay. Within the scope of this project, the main activities revolved around the development of two types of manuals: the Management Model and the Support Model. These manuals have been designed to adapt to various natural and cultural environments found in Nepal. Additionally, the project encompassed actual capacity development activities in the pilot sites. An important objective of these models is to improve water supply services in small towns. Thus, the documents generated through the projects, such as SOPs, training materials, and manuals are expected to contribute to small-town water supply systems beyond the pilot area due to the versatility of these models.

Data cannot be made publicly available; readers should contact the corresponding author for details.

The authors declare there is no conflict.