Barriers to the sustainability of rural water schemes in Sub-Saharan African countries: a systematic review Open Access

A sustainable rural water scheme is designed to provide reliable, affordable, and sufficient access to safe drinking water for rural communities over an extended period. Such systems are expected to operate without adverse environmental impacts and should be resilient to socioeconomic and environmental changes. Key characteristics include community management, regular maintenance, and financial viability (Marks 2012; Aashiq et al. 2020). Access to safe and sustainable water supply remains a significant challenge in rural Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), impeding progress toward global development goals. The United Nations' Sustainable Development Goal 6 (SDG 6) aims to ‘ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all’ by 2030. However, as of 2022, 2.2 billion people worldwide lacked access to safely managed drinking water, with a substantial proportion residing in SSA (United Nations 2023). As of 2022, approximately 73% of the global population had access to safely managed drinking water services (UN Water 2022). In Africa, significant progress has been made, but challenges remain. For instance, North Africa boasts a high coverage rate of >90%, while SSA lags with only 30% of the population having access to safely managed drinking water services as of 2022. This reflects limited progress since 2000, with rural areas in SSA particularly disadvantaged, where only 24% of the rural population has access to safely managed water services compared to 54% in urban areas (UNICEF & WHO 2021).

Globally, the sustainability of rural water schemes varies, with functionality rates ranging from 19 to 90%, indicating significant inconsistencies. In SSA, approximately 75% of hand pumps are functional, leaving about 25% non-functional at any given time (Murray et al. 2024). This disparity underscores the pressing need for targeted interventions to enhance the sustainability and functionality of rural water schemes, particularly in SSA, to ensure reliable access to safe drinking water.

Efforts to enhance water supply access have included the construction of rural water schemes, such as boreholes, wells, and piped systems. These initiatives are crucial for improving water availability in underserved areas. However, the functionality and sustainability of these systems have been inconsistent. Recent studies indicate that globally while 92% of newly constructed water points were functional within the first year, this rate declined to 79% in subsequent years (Murray et al. 2024). Similarly, in rural Ethiopia, it is estimated that 65% of water points remain functional, with key factors influencing their functionality including the presence of well-established Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WaSH) committees and the use of India Mark II pumps (Anthonj et al. 2018). The severity of the issue extends beyond immediate water scarcity, impacting broader developmental goals. Unsustainable water schemes exacerbate health disparities due to waterborne diseases, restrict economic productivity, and amplify social tensions over resource distribution (Okesanya et al. 2024). For example, in Ethiopia, 60–80% of communicable diseases are attributed to limited access to safe water and inadequate sanitation and hygiene services, negatively impacting health and nutrition (UNICEF 2024). Moreover, external dependencies, such as over-reliance on donor funds and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) for maintenance, reveal structural vulnerabilities in water scheme management (IRC 2019).

The challenges affecting the sustainability of rural water schemes are multifaceted, encompassing financial constraints, technical issues, institutional weaknesses, and environmental factors. Financially, inadequate cost recovery mechanisms hinder maintenance and repairs. Technically, a lack of infrastructure and local expertise leads to system failures. Institutionally, weak governance frameworks impede effective management. Environmentally, factors such as climate variability and pollution further compromise water quality and availability (Marks 2012; Aashiq et al. 2020).

Global initiatives have focused on improving water access through infrastructure development, policy reforms, and community-based management. For instance, the Water for All initiative aims to improve water access in rural areas by enhancing infrastructure, promoting efficient water use, and fostering community engagement in water management (Water for All 2025). In SSA, the African Development Bank's Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Initiative supports sustainable water access by strengthening local capacity and promoting integrated water resource management (African Development Bank 2025). Additionally, the United Nations' SDGs highlight the importance of ensuring access to clean water and sanitation for all, with an emphasis on rural communities (United Nations 2023).

Despite these efforts, a critical knowledge gap remains regarding how barriers intersect and why certain interventions fail to yield sustainable outcomes. Existing studies often focus on isolated factors rather than providing a comprehensive synthesis of barriers and their interactions within specific contexts, such as SSA. This systematic review aims to answer a research question entitled ‘What are the key barriers to the sustainability of rural water schemes in SSA countries?’ and synthesize the barriers to the sustainability of rural water schemes in SSA countries. By addressing this gap, the review seeks to inform targeted strategies and policies to enhance the effectiveness and longevity of rural water supply systems in the region.

This study was used a systematic review design to identify and synthesize existing evidence on the barriers to the sustainability of rural water scheme in SSA countries. Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) guidelines were used to ensure transparency and rigor in the selection, appraisal and analysis of the studies (Page et al. 2021). Rural areas across SSA were considered the setting for this study. SSA encompasses countries south of the Sahara Desert, where access to sustainable water supply systems is critical due to high reliance on groundwater, intermittent surface water sources, and varying institutional support. By examining studies conducted within this geographical and socio-political context, this review aims to provide a holistic understanding of the barriers impacting water scheme sustainability in rural communities.

PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar databases were explored to identify relevant literature. The PRISMA guidelines were used to ensure scientific accuracy (Page et al. 2021). A search strategy was developed using Boolean operators and a combination of keywords and synonyms. The key terms used in building the search strategy for the databases included rural water supply, rural water schemes, community water systems, sustainability, long-term viability, barriers, constraints, challenges, Sub-Saharan Africa, and SSA. The following search terms were employed to retrieve articles from the major databases mentioned above: (rural water supply OR rural water schemes OR community water systems) AND (sustainability OR long-term viability) AND (barriers OR constraints OR challenges) AND (Sub-Saharan Africa OR SSA).

After collecting all available literature from various databases into EndNote software, initial screening was conducted by reviewing titles to identify relevant studies and eliminate duplicates. Subsequently, abstracts and full-text articles were thoroughly reviewed by all authors to ensure the presence of the study outcomes and adherence to the inclusion criteria, with disagreements resolved through discussion. The inclusion of articles for the review was guided by the PRISMA checklist, and the inclusion criteria were determined using the SPIDER framework: S (Sample): Rural communities in SSA reliant on water schemes; PI (Phenomenon of Interest): Barriers to the sustainability of rural water schemes; D (Design): Studies employing qualitative, quantitative, or mixed-methods to identify and analyze barriers; E (Evaluation): Identification of key barriers and their effects on sustainability; and R (Research Type): Qualitative, quantitative, or mixed-method studies. Based on this framework, the following inclusion criteria were applied: studies conducted in rural areas within SSA countries; studies examining the sustainability of rural water supply schemes, including hand pumps, boreholes, wells, and piped water systems; studies that explicitly and broadly discuss barriers, challenges, and factors affecting the long-term functionality, management, or performance of rural water schemes; studies published in English; studies published between January 2000 and December 2023; mixed-method, quantitative, and qualitative peer-reviewed articles and thesis reports; and full-text articles accessible for review.

The selection process for this study followed three stages: In the first stage, duplicates were screened and removed. In the second stage, the titles and abstracts of the remaining studies were screened for relevance to the topic and potential eligibility. In the third stage, the full texts were read in detail, and the studies were assessed for final inclusion in the review based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria. Discussions were held on the results of the selection process with all coauthors, and studies were selected through consensus.

All potentially relevant articles were retained, and the full texts of these studies were examined to determine which studies satisfied the inclusion criteria. Data from all studies that met the final inclusion criteria were extracted by using Microsoft excel spread sheet. Data extractions were carried out independently by the three reviewers (G.G., Z.A., and Y.M.) to ensure accuracy and resolve discrepancies. The extracted data included the name of the first author, publication year, study setting, objective, study design, study population, sample size, sampling technique, data collection method, data analysis technique, and findings of the included studies. All authors critically reviewed the output of data extraction by comparing it with the included studies and proceeded to the next step after resolving differences through detailed discussion.

To ensure the reliability and rigor of the systematic review, the quality of the included studies was assessed using the Mixed-Methods Appraisal Tool (MMAT) (2018 version) (Hong et al. 2018). The MMAT was used to evaluate the quality of mixed, quantitative, and qualitative studies included in the review, incorporating five core quality criteria for each study type and two screening questions common to all study designs. Each criterion was rated as ‘Yes,’ indicating the criterion was met; ‘No,’ indicating the criterion was not met; or ‘Can't tell,’ when insufficient information was available to determine if the criterion was met. To evaluate overall methodological quality, the percentage score for each study was calculated by dividing the total score by the total number of items and multiplying by 100, and studies were categorized into three levels: 80% and above as high quality, 50–79% as moderate quality, and <50% as low quality. In this review, no study was excluded based on the quality assessment results, as it was believed that every study could contribute to understanding the various factors influencing the sustainability of rural water schemes.

The findings of the study were synthesized narratively using thematic synthesis. The results sections of the studies were read line by line to generate an initial list of codes inductively, without any pre-existing themes in mind. Codes with similar concepts were organized into subthemes and themes. The ATLAS.ti version 7.5.1.6 software was used to assist in the analysis, facilitating the coding process and the further categorization of concepts into themes. Given the qualitative and mixed-methods nature of the studies, meta-analysis was not conducted, as the data were not suitable for quantitative synthesis.

The review included 19 studies, encompassing 15 mixed-method studies, one quantitative, three qualitative studies. These studies were conducted in eight SSA countries: Zimbabwe (four studies) (Dube 2013; Kwangware et al. 2014; Kativhu et al. 2017; Kativhu et al. 2022), Kenya (four studies) (Marks et al. 2013; Wangwe 2016; Adaka & Mugambi 2018; Kipkeny 2014), Ethiopia (three studies) (Tadesse et al. 2013; Birhanu 2017; Gurmessa & Mekuriaw 2019), Ghana (two studies) (Marks et al. 2014; Angmor et al. 2024), Zambia (one study) (Musonda 2004), Tanzania (two studies) (Kirenga & Mbwette 2018; Ndyamukama 2023), Malawi (one study) (Chowns 2014), Uganda (one study) (Etongo et al. 2018) and Ghana, Kenya and Zambia (one study) (Kelly et al. 2017). The publication years ranged from 2004 to 2024, with most studies (16) published after 2012. Two studies were conducted before 2010, while 12 studies were published between 2010 and 2020, and six studies were published from 2021 onward. Regarding methodological approaches, the mixed-method studies integrated quantitative and qualitative techniques, including surveys, focus group discussions (FGDs), and in-depth interviews (IDIs). The quantitative studies primarily relied on household surveys, technical assessments, and statistical modeling. The qualitative studies used interviews, FGDs, and participatory observation. An overview of the characteristics and summary findings of the included studies is included as a Supplementary file, Table S1.

Of the 15 mixed studies, 13 were rated as high quality and three were rated as moderate quality. Similarly, all (3) the qualitative studies were rate as high quality and the quantitative (1) study was rated as moderate quality. The full results of the quality appraisal are described in Supplementary material, Tables S2, S3, S4.

According to the review, access to sustainable water supply systems is often hindered by significant financial barriers, with challenges varying across countries and regions. Common issues include insufficient funds for operation and maintenance, low household contributions, weak financial management systems, and an inability to recover costs due to economic hardships. High poverty levels in countries such as Zimbabwe (Kativhu et al. 2022), Kenya (Adaka & Mugambi 2018), and Tanzania (Ndyamukama 2023) exacerbate these problems, limiting the ability of households to pay for water services or contribute to maintenance. Additionally, reliance on external funding in Malawi (Chowns 2014) and poor enforcement of financial rules in Uganda (Etongo et al. 2018) further undermine long-term sustainability.

One of the identified financial barriers in the review was insufficient funds for the operation and maintenance of water schemes. Studies in Zimbabwe, Uganda, and Kenya highlight that many communities across SSA countries face chronic financial shortages, with funds collected through user fees or tariffs falling short of operational and maintenance costs. For instance, in Zimbabwe, studies show that households earning less than USD 20 per month cannot afford consistent contributions, creating funding gaps (Kativhu et al. 2017; Kativhu et al. 2022). Similar findings have been reported in Uganda, where irregular financial contributions hinder water system sustainability (Etongo et al. 2018), and in Kenya, where high poverty levels reduce the ability to collect sufficient funds (Adaka & Mugambi 2018).

Another identified financial barrier in the review was a weak financial management system. The studies indicated that poor financial management practices, lack of transparency, and weak auditing mechanisms lead to inefficiencies in the allocation and use of funds for water supply systems. In Ghana, weak financial auditing practices and fund mismanagement have been highlighted as critical obstacles (Kelly et al. 2017; Angmor et al. 2024). Similar findings in Zimbabwe show that the absence of robust financial systems leads to resource allocation inefficiencies (Kwangware et al. 2014).

External funding dependency was another identified financial factor in the review. Over-reliance on external funding, including donor aid and government subsidies, makes water supply systems vulnerable to fluctuations in external financial support. This dependency prevents communities from building financial resilience and limits long-term sustainability. In countries like Tanzania, dependence on donor funding leaves water supply systems vulnerable when external support is withdrawn or reduced (Ndyamukama 2023). Similarly, in Malawi, heavy reliance on government subsidies undermines the development of local financial mechanisms, making the systems unsustainable in the long run (Chowns 2014).

The other identified financial barrier was the low willingness and capacity of the community to pay for the water supply service. Economic hardships and inequities in user contributions significantly limit financial sustainability, as observed in studies conducted in Ethiopia and Ghana. In Ethiopia, many users are unwilling or unable to pay for water services, leading to insufficient funds for upkeep and repairs (Gurmessa & Mekuriaw 2019). Similarly, in Ghana, income disparities result in unequal financial contributions, further complicating the sustainable management of water systems (Marks et al. 2014).

Low tariffs and ineffective cost recovery mechanisms were identified as significant financial barriers in studies conducted in Tanzania and Ethiopia. The studies indicated that these factors hinder the ability of water supply systems to generate sufficient revenue for operations and maintenance. As a result, many water systems struggle to balance user affordability with financial sustainability. Findings from Tanzania showed that setting tariffs too low creates financial shortfalls, impeding long-term sustainability (Kirenga & Mbwette 2018). Similarly, findings from Ethiopia revealed that ineffective cost recovery mechanisms lead to financial instability in water systems (Tadesse et al. 2013).

Poverty and economic inequities further exacerbate existing financial barriers, as shown in a study conducted in Kenya and Zambia. Findings from Kenya highlighted that economic hardships, such as poor agricultural productivity and high poverty rates, limit financial contributions to water systems (Wangwe 2016; Adaka & Mugambi 2018). In Zambia, economic inequities result in disparities in financial support for water systems, with wealthier households contributing significantly more than poorer ones (Musonda 2004).

Technical barriers present significant challenges to the sustainability and functionality of water supply systems across various regions, as highlighted in the reviewed studies. One major barrier to rural water scheme sustainability was the lack of technical skills and maintenance capacity among community members. Many communities lack the expertise needed for the proper maintenance and repair of water systems, leading to prolonged downtimes, frequent breakdowns, and disrupted water access. A study in Zimbabwe found that prolonged downtimes often result from inadequate technical skills within communities, making them reliant on external assistance for repairs (Kativhu et al. 2022). Similarly, a study in Zambia identified insufficient training in water system operation and maintenance as a significant barrier to sustainable water supply management (Musonda 2004). In Kenya, communities experienced frequent breakdowns, particularly with hand pumps, due to limited technical expertise (Kipkeny 2014).

The review also identified the inaccessibility of spare parts and tools as a significant technical barrier to water system sustainability. The availability of spare parts and tools is critical for maintaining water systems. However, studies in Zimbabwe, Tanzania, and Ghana revealed that communities struggle to access these resources due to high costs, logistical challenges, and inadequate supply chains. For instance, a study in Zimbabwe reported that elephant pumps often remained non-functional due to the unavailability of spare parts, exacerbating water shortages (Kativhu et al. 2022). Similarly, research in Tanzania found that limited access to spare parts increased repair costs and delayed essential maintenance, reducing the reliability of water supply systems (Kirenga & Mbwette 2018). A study in Ghana also highlighted that the lack of spare parts severely hindered repair efforts, leaving communities without access to clean water for extended periods (Kelly et al. 2017).

Another critical barrier identified in the review was the lack of community ownership and poor perceptions of water quality. Concerns over contamination and insufficient ownership often result in reduced engagement, neglect of maintenance needs, and diminished long-term sustainability. A study in Ethiopia found that fears of contamination caused by factors such as animal access and poor maintenance led to reduced trust in water points and users' unwillingness to maintain systems (Gurmessa & Mekuriaw 2019). Furthermore, confusion over ownership of water facilities, often caused by the involvement of multiple external stakeholders, and over-reliance on NGOs for spare parts, training, and materials limited self-sustainability. Research in Zimbabwe revealed that this lack of ownership clarity often resulted in disputes over maintenance responsibilities, hindering water systems' effective operation (Kativhu et al. 2022). Conversely, studies demonstrated the positive impact of strong community ownership on system functionality. For example, research in Kenya found that water committees' strong sense of ownership was associated with improved infrastructure conditions, while household ownership had negligible effects (Marks et al. 2013). Similarly, a study in Ghana reported that limited community ownership led to neglect of system maintenance, frequent breakdowns, and disrupted water services (Angmor et al. 2024).

Another barrier identified in this review was the dependency on external entities for maintaining water points. Communities often rely on external organizations, such as NGOs or government agencies, for technical support and repairs. A study in Zimbabwe found that reliance on NGOs for technical support, spare parts, training, and material resources hindered communities from developing the skills needed to manage and maintain their water systems independently (Kativhu et al. 2022). The study highlighted that over-reliance on NGOs prevented communities from building local capacity, making it difficult to sustain water facilities once external support was withdrawn. Similarly, a study in Ghana reported that a lack of timely technical support often left water systems non-functional for extended periods, disrupting access to clean water(Kelly et al. 2017). In Zambia, inadequate technical support services further hampered communities' ability to repair and maintain water systems effectively, exacerbating the issue (Musonda 2004).

Institutional barriers significantly impact the effectiveness and sustainability of water supply systems across various countries. Challenges such as weak governance structures, inadequate training, poor community engagement, limited institutional support, and insufficient monitoring are widely documented. Studies from Zimbabwe, Ethiopia, Zambia, Kenya, Ghana, Tanzania, Uganda, and Malawi highlight how these barriers undermine the immediate functionality and long-term sustainability of water supply systems. These issues are further compounded by limited government support, weak policy frameworks, and inconsistent capacity-building efforts.

One of the barriers identified for the sustainability of rural water schemes in the review was the weakness of water point user committees due to migration, deaths, disinterest, and poor management structures. A study in Zimbabwe revealed that water committees often become ineffective due to these factors, limiting their ability to manage water points effectively (Dube 2013; Kwangware et al. 2014; Kativhu et al. 2022). Weak governance in water committees was similarly identified as a barrier in Ethiopia, where under-resourced committees struggle to maintain water points (Tadesse et al. 2013; Gurmessa & Mekuriaw 2019).

Another significant barrier was non-functional or undertrained water point committees (WPCs), weak rule implementation, financial defaults, and fund misuse. Studies in Zimbabwe found that WPCs often lack adequate training, which leads to poor rule enforcement, defaults in financial contributions, and mistrust due to fund misuse (Kativhu et al. 2017; Kativhu et al. 2022). Similar issues have been reported in Zambia, Ethiopia, and Kenya, where poor training and governance undermine water system sustainability (Musonda 2004; Adaka & Mugambi 2018; Gurmessa & Mekuriaw 2019). A study by Gurmessa & Mekuriaw (2019) in Ethiopia found that a lack of user training in water system maintenance prevented communities from addressing minor issues, leading to prolonged service interruptions.

Insufficient support and coordination with local institutions, coupled with inconsistent monitoring systems, were also identified as barriers to the sustainability of rural water schemes in the review. Studies from Ethiopia, Ghana, and Zimbabwe revealed that weak collaboration between water committees and local institutions hampers the performance of water systems. Weak institutional frameworks and inadequate monitoring delay essential interventions, undermining system functionality (Tadesse et al. 2013; Kwangware et al. 2014; Marks et al. 2014; Angmor et al. 2024).

Weak institutional capacity, absence of skilled management, and ineffective water committees were other barriers to the sustainability of rural water schemes. A study in Zimbabwe, Uganda, and Kenya highlights the negative impact of weak institutional capacity on water system sustainability. The lack of skilled management and ineffective committees creates inefficiencies, leading to frequent breakdowns and service disruptions (Kipkeny 2014; Kwangware et al. 2014; Etongo et al. 2018).

Weak governance structures within water committees were another identified factor in the review. These weak governance structures affect accountability and decision-making. Studies from Uganda, Kenya, Ghana, and Tanzania emphasize the importance of robust governance structures for water committees. Weak governance has been linked to poor decision-making, resource mismanagement, and low community trust, which undermine water system sustainability (Marks et al. 2014; Wangwe 2016; Etongo et al. 2018; Kirenga & Mbwette 2018).

Inadequate legal frameworks and the presence of policy gaps were other barriers identified across different countries in the included studies. Studies from Zambia, Kenya, and Malawi identify legal and policy gaps as significant institutional barriers. In Zambia, rural water supply is neglected under current legal frameworks, while in Kenya and Malawi, weak policy support undermines community management efforts (Musonda 2004; Chowns 2014; Adaka & Mugambi 2018). In addition, a lack of government support and weak policy frameworks for water supply management lead to poor sustainability of rural water schemes. A study in Ghana by Marks et al. (2014) found that the lack of government support and weak policy frameworks significantly hinder the long-term sustainability of water systems. Another study by Chowns (2014) in Malawi and Ndyamukama (2023) in Tanzania found that weak community management structures, combined with a lack of supportive policies, contribute to inefficiencies in water systems. This result is also complemented by weak institutional frameworks and a lack of clear policies governing water supply management.

Weak or under-resourced committees struggle with monitoring, leading to delays in interventions, is another barrier raised in different studies included in the review. A study in Ethiopia highlighted the challenges faced by under-resourced committees in monitoring water systems. These limitations lead to delays in identifying and addressing issues, impacting the reliability of water services (Kelly et al. 2017; Gurmessa & Mekuriaw 2019). Similar concerns have been reported in Ghana and Zimbabwe (Angmor et al. 2024; Kwangware et al. 2014). Weak community management systems and ineffective local governance structures were other challenges identified in the review. In Ethiopia, Ghana, and Tanzania, research has shown that weak community management structures contribute to inefficiencies in water system operation. Community management often fails to engage all members effectively, resulting in unequal participation and poor ownership (Birhanu 2017; Ndyamukama 2023; Angmor et al. 2024).

Lack of community engagement and ownership was also another identified institutional factor. Studies in Ghana, Kenya, and Uganda have revealed that insufficient community engagement leads to a lack of ownership and commitments (Adaka & Mugambi 2018; Etongo et al. 2018; Angmor et al. 2024).

Social factors, including community ownership, participation, governance, gender equality, and cultural norms, are fundamental to the sustainability of water supply systems. A study conducted in several countries in SSA highlights the importance of local social dynamics in determining the success or failure of water management systems. In many regions, challenges such as weak community engagement, gender inequality, and cultural barriers have been identified as significant obstacles undermining water system sustainability. These challenges are particularly prevalent in countries like Zimbabwe, Ethiopia, Zambia, Uganda, Kenya, Ghana, and Tanzania, where local community involvement is critical for the long-term maintenance of water resources. Low community ownership was one of the identified social barriers to the sustainability of rural water schemes in the review. A study conducted by Dube (2013) in Zimbabwe found that low community ownership is a major barrier to the sustainability of water systems (Dube 2013). Furthermore, Birhanu (2017) conducted a study in Ethiopia revealed that communities with low involvement in water system management are less likely to invest in system upkeep, and external support becomes crucial for repairs (Birhanu 2017).

Another identified factor for the sustainability of rural water schemes was low community involvement in the decision-making processes of planning, construction, and operation of the water supply system. A study by Kativhu et al. (2022) in Zimbabwe observed that minimal involvement in decision-making regarding the planning, construction, and operation of water systems leads to poor management outcomes (Kativhu et al. 2022). Additionally, Gurmessa & Mekuriaw (2019) found that low community participation in the construction of water points led to a sense of detachment and a lack of ownership, which negatively impacted the sustainability of the systems (Gurmessa & Mekuriaw 2019).

Gender inequality was one of the identified social or cultural barriers in the review. Gender disparities are a significant barrier to effective water management in many African countries. A study by Etongo et al. (2018) in Uganda found that despite women being the primary collectors of water in many communities, they often have limited representation in water management committees. In Zimbabwe, a study by Kwangware et al. (2014) revealed that cultural norms further exacerbate gender inequality in water management. The study found that women were often excluded from water committees due to societal expectations that placed them in traditional domestic roles, hindering their ability to contribute to decision-making processes (Kwangware et al. 2014).

Another identified social or cultural barrier was weak governance and lack of rule enforcement. Strong governance structures and the enforcement of rules are essential for ensuring that water management systems are effectively maintained. Kativhu et al. (2022) in Zimbabwe found that weak governance and kinship ties can prevent the enforcement of penalties for rule violations in water systems. The study suggested that without clear rules and accountable leadership, water committees struggle to ensure that all community members adhere to the regulations, leading to system breakdowns (Kativhu et al. 2022). A similar issue was highlighted by Kipkeny (2014) in Kenya, where weak governance structures and a lack of rule enforcement resulted in low community engagement and participation in water management activities (Kipkeny 2014).

The availability of alternative sources in the surrounding areas was another contributing barrier identified in the review. Musonda (2004), in his study conducted in Zambia, found that the availability of alternative sources, such as rivers and seasonal rainfall, led to a reduction in the community's willingness to protect and maintain water systems (Musonda 2004). In Ethiopia, Gurmessa & Mekuriyaw (2019) also noted that alternative water sources negatively impacted the sustainability of water system. When communities have access to alternative sources, they are less likely to prioritize maintaining the infrastructure that is crucial for a long-term water supply (Gurmessa & Mekuriaw 2019). Socioeconomic disparities and cultural barriers are another significant obstacle to the adoption and maintenance of effective water management practices. In Kenya, a study by Wangwe (2016) found that cultural beliefs and traditional practices often hinder the adoption of modern water management techniques. Communities resistant to change due to cultural norms may be less likely to maintain water infrastructure or adopt technologies that are seen as incompatible with local customs (Wangwe 2016). Another study by Marks et al. (2014) in Ghana found that social acceptance and the adaptation of water supply technologies to local cultural practices significantly influence the maintenance and sustainability of these systems. The research emphasizes that for water systems to be effective, they must align with the community's cultural practices and be embraced as integral to their daily life (Marks et al. 2014). Additionally, Kirenga & Mbwette (2018) in Tanzania identified that socioeconomic inequalities often limit access to water services, particularly for marginalized or remote communities. Poverty and lack of resources prevent these groups from fully participating in water management systems, leading to uneven access and inefficient distribution of water resources (Kirenga & Mbwette 2018).

Environmental barriers, including water quality, climate change, land degradation, and contamination from industrial and agricultural activities, have been found to significantly impact water availability and sustainability. Studies conducted in countries such as Zimbabwe, Ethiopia, Ghana, and Tanzania have shown that environmental degradation, climate variability, and pollution contribute to the challenges faced by communities in accessing safe and reliable water sources. A study in Zimbabwe highlighted that communities often faced challenges with water quality due to the presence of salty water in boreholes and inadequate water supply in rural areas. This study pointed to the environmental challenges in accessing clean and reliable water, which directly impacted the health and livelihoods of the local population (Kativhu et al. 2022). Another study in Ethiopia showed that chemicals from industries and agricultural practices were contaminating local water sources, rendering them unsafe for consumption (Tadesse et al. 2013). A study in Ghana examined the long-term sustainability of water systems in the context of environmental factors such as climate change, local environmental conditions, and water source availability. The study emphasized that climate change, with its unpredictable rainfall patterns, threatened the reliability and availability of water sources. It also pointed out the risks posed by drying water sources and contamination, making the sustainability of water systems increasingly uncertain (Marks et al. 2014).

Another study in Tanzania, investigated how unsustainable land use practices contributed to the degradation of water sources. Activities such as deforestation, poor agricultural practices, and overgrazing led to the pollution and depletion of water resources. The degradation of water sources created additional challenges for communities in accessing clean water, further exacerbating the water crisis. The study also explored the effects of climate variability on the availability and reliability of water sources and found that changes in rainfall patterns, including prolonged droughts and irregular rainfall, had a direct impact on water availability. These shifts in climate resulted in reduced river flow and lower groundwater levels, making it difficult for communities to rely on traditional water sources (Kirenga & Mbwette 2018).

Technological barriers are a key challenge to the successful implementation and sustainability of water supply systems. Studies conducted in Zambia, Zimbabwe, Uganda, and Tanzania have highlighted issues such as the imposition of predetermined technologies, inappropriate technology selection, variability in technology performance, and limited access to spare parts. Additionally, over-reliance on external support for technical assistance and inadequate infrastructure further complicates the efficient management and maintenance of water systems. A study by Musonda (2004) in Zambia highlighted a significant technological barrier where communities were often excluded from decisions regarding the choice of water supply technologies. As a result, systems that were installed were sometimes ill-suited for local conditions, leading to poor performance and the eventual abandonment of water points. The study also noted that the proliferation of various water supply technologies, coupled with inadequate support for maintenance and spare parts, led to the standardization of certain technologies, such as the India Mark II hand pumps, as the most suitable option for rural areas in Zambia. While the hand pumps became widespread, they were not always the best fit for every community (Musonda 2004).

Another study in Zimbabwe revealed significant variability in the performance of water-lifting devices. Rowing pumps, which were used in some rural areas, performed better due to the higher availability of spare parts and their suitability for local conditions. In contrast, other types of pumps often faced issues with repair and maintenance because parts were difficult to obtain in remote areas. This study emphasized that choosing the right technology, which is compatible with local conditions and supported by a reliable supply chain for spare parts, is crucial for ensuring the success and longevity of water supply systems (Kativhu et al. 2022). Etongo et al. (2018), in their study conducted in Uganda, identified limited access to spare parts for water systems as a major technological barrier. In remote areas, the scarcity of spare parts for pumps and other water supply systems often led to prolonged delays in repairs, causing water points to remain non-functional for extended periods. This issue exacerbated water scarcity and negatively impacted the health of communities that depended on these water sources. The study also highlighted the over-reliance of local communities on external organizations for technical support. Communities often depended on external donors and NGOs for the installation, maintenance, and repair of water systems (Etongo et al. 2018).

A study in Tanzania examined how the lack of adequate infrastructure hindered the adoption of more advanced water supply technologies, such as efficient pumping systems and gravity-fed water distribution systems. These technologies could significantly improve the efficiency and sustainability of water delivery systems, but many areas in Tanzania lacked the necessary infrastructure to support them. The study suggested that investing in robust infrastructure would not only enable the adoption of modern technologies but also reduce operational costs and improve water distribution in rural areas (Ndyamukama 2023).

Poor infrastructure and technology reliability were identified as barriers to the sustainability of rural water schemes in studies conducted in Zimbabwe, Kenya, and Tanzania. The reliability of water infrastructure and technology plays a crucial role in ensuring consistent water access. Poor infrastructure, frequent breakdowns, and delayed repairs often disrupt water supply services, making them unsustainable in the long term. A study conducted in Zimbabwe stated that poor road networks delayed technical repairs, further exacerbating water shortages and increasing reliance on external support (Kwangware et al. 2014). Another study in Kenya revealed that unreliable hand pumps led to frequent breakdowns, undermining community trust in the water systems and their long-term sustainability (Adaka & Mugambi 2018). Similarly, research in Tanzania pointed out that the adoption of advanced technologies, such as gravity-fed systems, could significantly improve water supply efficiency, but their absence in many areas limits sustainability (Ndyamukama 2023).

The systematic review analyzed 19 studies conducted across eight SSA countries: Zimbabwe, Kenya, Ethiopia, Ghana, Zambia, Tanzania, Malawi, and Uganda. The studies encompass a range of mixed-method, quantitative, and qualitative methodologies, with publication dates ranging from 2004 to 2024. These studies identify six critical themes impeding the sustainability of rural water schemes: financial, technical, institutional, social and cultural, environmental, and technological barriers. This discussion delves into the specifics of each theme by summarizing findings, exploring the reasons behind these barriers, their effects, and highlighting their implications for sustainable water management.

Financial constraints remain a pervasive issue in rural water schemes, affecting operation, maintenance, and long-term sustainability. Findings from Zimbabwe and Kenya indicate that insufficient funds often result in maintenance backlogs and system breakdowns (Adaka & Mugambi 2018; Kativhu et al. 2022). Other studies underscore challenges such as weak financial management systems (Kwangware et al. 2014; Angmor et al. 2024), over-reliance on donor funding (Chowns 2014; Ndyamukama 2023), and the inability of impoverished households to contribute to water fees (Gurmessa & Mekuriaw 2019). This might be due to a lack of diversified income sources in rural communities, high poverty rates, and an absence of structured financial planning. Weak financial management may result from inadequate training and oversight at the community level, while reliance on donor funding reflects limited government investment and support. These financial challenges lead to frequent system breakdowns, reduced service quality, and limited coverage of water systems. Over time, reliance on external funding can create unsustainable dependency, leaving communities vulnerable when funding sources are depleted. These financial challenges cascade into technical issues due to underfunding of maintenance and spare parts procurement. Weak financial systems also diminish institutional capacity, as water committees often lack the resources to enforce rules or manage funds transparently. Improved financial systems are essential. Strategies could include establishing effective tariff models that balance affordability with financial viability, training communities in financial management, and promoting self-reliance through economic diversification. Policies should address income inequities to enhance households' ability to contribute. Addressing financial barriers involves establishing sustainable financial mechanisms, such as transparent fund management systems, diversifying income sources for community contributions, and reducing reliance on external funding to build local resilience.

Technical shortcomings present significant challenges. Studies emphasize the lack of local technical skills for maintenance and repair (Musonda 2004; Kativhu et al. 2022), inadequate spare parts supply chains (Kativhu et al. 2017), and dependence on NGOs for technical expertise (Kelly et al. 2017; Kativhu et al. 2022). This might be due to limited access to technical training opportunities in rural areas, the high costs of spare parts and tools, and weak local markets for repair services. Dependency on external actors often results from a lack of initial community involvement in the planning and design of water systems. Frequent breakdowns disrupt water supply and increase repair delays, eroding trust in the system. Communities without local technical expertise remain dependent on external aid, which can be intermittent and unreliable. Enhancing technical skills through training programs and vocational education is critical. Strengthening spare parts supply chains and fostering local manufacturing of repair components can empower communities to maintain systems independently. The technical barriers exacerbate financial issues as frequent breakdowns increase repair costs. Furthermore, dependence on external technical expertise weakens institutional frameworks by preventing communities from building local self-sufficiency. Technical inefficiencies also amplify social frustrations, reducing trust in water management structures. Strengthening technical capacity requires investments in local training programs, establishing efficient supply chains for spare parts, and fostering self-sufficiency through community-based maintenance systems.

Regarding to institutional barriers, weak governance structures, inadequate legal frameworks, and poor coordination between local institutions undermine water system management. Studies in Ethiopia, Ghana, and Zimbabwe highlight that ineffective water committees are ill equipped to handle operational challenges (Kwangware et al. 2014; Marks et al. 2014; Angmor et al. 2024). Insufficient government support and policy gaps further exacerbate institutional weaknesses (Chowns 2014; Adaka & Mugambi 2018). This might be due to frequent turnover in committee leadership, migration of trained individuals, and inadequate policy prioritization of rural water schemes. Poor training may result from inconsistent or poorly implemented capacity-building initiatives. Weak institutions lead to poorly managed systems, financial mismanagement, and operational inefficiencies. Communities experience frequent service interruptions and lose confidence in local governance structures. Governments must strengthen institutional capacity through targeted training programs and policy reforms that prioritize rural water management. Transparent governance and collaborative planning with community involvement are crucial for sustainable operations. Institutional weaknesses directly affect financial and technical barriers. Poor governance leads to fund mismanagement and ineffective enforcement of rules, aggravating operational failures. These institutional gaps also interact with social factors, as inadequate engagement of communities fosters a lack of ownership and accountability. Strengthening governance frameworks, enforcing clear policies, and providing consistent capacity-building initiatives can improve accountability and community trust in institutional structures.

Regarding to sociocultural barriers low community ownership and minimal participation in water governance are frequently cited as barriers (Dube 2013; Birhanu 2017). Gender disparities, such as the underrepresentation of women in water committees, limit the inclusivity and effectiveness of governance structures (Kwangware et al. 2014; Etongo et al. 2018). Cultural norms and socioeconomic inequalities also impede community engagement (Wangwe 2016). This might be due to deeply rooted cultural practices that restrict women's roles in public decision-making and inadequate community outreach efforts during project design. Limited ownership stems from exclusion during critical planning and operational phases. Low community engagement results in neglected maintenance responsibilities and poor adoption of water system technologies. Gender inequality further weakens governance structures by excluding vital perspectives that address household water needs. Community-driven governance structures are essential. Efforts must focus on engaging all demographic groups, promoting gender-balanced leadership, and educating communities on shared responsibilities. Addressing cultural resistance to modern management practices can enhance local ownership and accountability. Social barriers weaken institutional capacities by excluding critical perspectives from decision-making processes. Gender disparities particularly reduce operational efficiency, as women often the primary water users – are sidelined in governance. Low community ownership interacts with financial barriers, decreasing household contributions and commitment to system sustainability. Promoting community ownership and inclusivity requires participatory governance, targeted education initiatives, and ensuring gender-balanced representation in water management committees.

Environmental challenges, including climate variability and water source degradation, significantly impact rural water schemes. Studies from Ethiopia (Tadesse et al. 2013) and Zimbabwe (Kativhu et al. 2017) document contamination and drying water sources as critical issues. Tanzania's prolonged droughts highlight the vulnerability of water supply systems to climate change (Kirenga & Mbwette 2018). This might be due to inadequate land management practices, industrial activities, and insufficient policies to combat climate change impacts. Limited awareness of sustainable practices contributes to environmental degradation. Environmental degradation reduces the availability of clean water, while unpredictable rainfall patterns disrupt water system reliability. These challenges increase community reliance on alternative, often unsafe, water sources. Climate-resilient infrastructure and sustainable land management are essential. Policy interventions should focus on enforcing regulations to protect water sources while promoting adaptive measures to address changing environmental conditions. Environmental factors increase financial pressures by elevating treatment costs and intensifying resource scarcity. These challenges disrupt technical systems, as erratic water availability accelerates wear and tear on infrastructure. In turn, institutional and social capacities are strained by resource conflicts and the higher demands placed on governance. Policies that enforce sustainable land and water management practices, alongside investments in climate-resilient infrastructure, can mitigate the adverse impacts of environmental barriers.

Regarding to technological barriers, poorly chosen technologies and unreliable infrastructure hinder sustainability. Studies in Zambia (Musonda 2004) and Zimbabwe (Kativhu et al. 2017) highlight issues with inappropriate technology selection and limited access to spare parts. This might be due to a lack of consultation with communities during technology selection, leading to misaligned choices. Inadequate infrastructure reflects systemic underinvestment and logistical challenges in rural areas. Inappropriate technologies lead to frequent breakdowns, reducing system efficiency and increasing maintenance costs. Limited infrastructure hampers the adoption of advanced solutions, leaving communities reliant on outdated and inefficient systems. Empowering communities to participate in technology selection ensures solutions align with local needs. Investments in local infrastructure and markets for spare parts will enhance self-reliance and long-term system functionality. Technological inefficiencies amplify technical and financial barriers by increasing maintenance costs and reducing system reliability. Social resistance may arise when imposed technologies fail to meet user needs, further weakening institutional trust and participation. Ensuring sustainable technology integration requires inclusive planning processes, alignment of technologies with local needs, and investment in robust infrastructure to support long-term functionality.

This systematic review has several limitations. The study focuses on only eight countries, which may not fully represent the diversity of SSA. Additionally, the review relies on studies accessible within the selected electronic databases, potentially missing relevant research published elsewhere. The inclusion of only English-language studies may also exclude valuable findings in other languages. Variations in study methodologies, definitions, and measurements of barriers could impact the consistency and comparability of findings. Temporal factors, such as evolving political and environmental conditions, may limit the generalizability of the conclusions.

The sustainability of rural water schemes in SSA is hindered by interconnected barriers across financial, technical, institutional, social, environmental, and technological domains. Financial constraints, technical failures, weak governance, low community ownership, environmental degradation, and inappropriate technologies undermine system functionality. These barriers interact, creating cycles of dependency and inefficiency, such as financial gaps leading to technical failures and weak institutions eroding community trust. A holistic approach is needed, with sustainable financial mechanisms, local technical capacity-building, and strengthened governance frameworks. Inclusive community engagement, gender-balanced leadership, and environmental resilience through climate-adaptive infrastructure are essential for fostering ownership and accountability. Technological solutions must align with local needs for long-term functionality. Integrated interventions addressing these barriers will enhance resilience and sustainability, ensuring reliable access to safe water. Future research should explore barrier interactions and evaluate the effectiveness of integrated approaches in diverse contexts.

All relevant data are included in the paper or its Supplementary Information.

The authors declare there is no conflict.