Policy implications based on stakeholders’ perceptions for integrated management of the Halda River: Bangabandhu Fisheries Heritage of Bangladesh

Rivers are pivotal to the economic development of any economy by being the source of a range of critical ecosystem services, including the supply of fresh water and fishes, means of transportation, scenic beauty for tourism, place of rituals, assimilation of wastes, provision of opportunities for education and research, enhancement of the quality of the local environment, etc. (Sultana et al., 2019). Halda is a resourceful river with distinct additional values (Kabir et al., 2015). Halda is the third major river of Chattogram after the Karnaphuli and the Sangu, and it is one of the few rivers which remains within the boundary of Bangladesh. Originating from the Hashuk para of Patachara union of Ramgarh Upazila in Khagrachari district and discharging into the Karnaphuli River (Kibria et al., 2020), Halda flows through Fatikchari, Hathazari, Raozan Upazilas, and Chandgaon thana of Chattogram district (Islam et al., 2020). Halda is a unique, inimitable natural heritage of Bangladesh as the only tidal river of the world, providing a natural breeding ground for major Indian carps, namely Rui (Labeo rohita), Catla (Catla catla), Mrigel (Cirrhinus cirrhosus), Kalibaush (Labeocalbasu), etc. (Alam et al., 2013; Kabir et al., 2015). Carp fries from eggs collected from the Halda River fuel carp fish farming throughout the country with a substantial GDP contribution (Bangladesh National Portal, 2021). As such, this river provides direct or indirect livelihood to egg and fry collectors and fish farms (Kibria et al., 2018). In addition, this river supplies drinking water for millions living in Chattogram – the second largest urban center of Bangladesh. Also, Halda is the source of fish and sand, means of transportation, provider of irrigation water, assimilator of wastes, source of recreation and tourism, etc. (Kabir, 2011). Considering its critical importance, being the signatory of the Ramsar Convention (1971) and the World Heritage Convention (1972), the government considered declaring Halda as an Ecologically Critical Area (ECA) to conserve this heritage (Kabir, 2011; The Independent, 2020). Meanwhile, the Government of Bangladesh declared a 40 km patch of Halda from Nazirhat Bridge to Kalurghat Bridge as a sanctuary (Halda Gazette, 2010), while the whole river from the origin at the Hashuk para to the confluence at the Karnaphuli River, Mohora (22°.55′39.79″ North and 91°.46′17.32″ East to 22°.26.667′ North and 91°.50.470′ East) as the Bangabandhu Fisheries Heritage (Halda Gazette, 2020; The Financial Express, 2020). In addition to these declarations, several laws and regulations related to river ecosystem conservation apply to Halda. There had been efforts to estimate the direct and indirect use values of Halda (Kabir, 2011), environmental problems facing the river (Azadi & Alam, 2015; Saimon et al., 2016), biodiversity of the river, reporting a total of 93 species of Ichthyofauna, i.e., fish, shrimp, and crab from the river from 7 years (2004–2011) of investigation including three critically endangered, nine endangered, and eight vulnerable species (Azadi & Arshad-Ul-Alam, 2011). Besides, Ferdous et al. (2015) identified 15 carp species, including two vulnerable, two endangered, and three exotics. There have also been reports of the disappearance of 26 species of fishes from Halda, including Goni Chapila, Iisha, Telipasha, Chital, Foli, Mrigal, Koksa, Ghor Poia, Guijja Ayre, Meni, Dhela, Chep Chela, Teri Punti, Baleetora, Pabda, Madhu Pabda, Tengra, Shilong, Dhain, Batasi, Pangwash, Ghajal, Koitor Poa, Poa, Baila, and Nuna Baila (The Daily Star, 2017). Losing any additional species from the iconic river is completely unacceptable. There is no alternative to adopt integrated management to conserve the river and its ecosystem to meet that end. Several studies identified a range of threats facing the river from natural and anthropogenic sources, including the prevalence of engine boats; cutting of oxbow bends; flow of industrial effluents, poultry wastes, and sewage; unplanned sluice gates and a rubber dam for irrigation; sand quarrying; use of insecticides in crop fields; tobacco farming in the upstream areas of the river; excessive water withdrawal for drinking and irrigation; conversion of upstream watershed land use from forests to orchards; etc. (Islam et al., 2017; Khan, 2019; Saha et al., 2019; Kibria, 2021). Discrete initiatives taken by different organizations to manage the river in the past based on efforts to address specific issues like among the 12 sluice gates/regulators, only three (Poralia, Kagtia, and Chengkhali) are useful for irrigation and drainage management while rest gates are not suitable; rubber dam; immense sand quarrying by local leaders and businessmen from 20 legal and illegal sand extraction stations; cutting of 11 oxbow bends over the last 100 years; two government irrigation projects; a total of 22 brickfields along the two banks of this river; and mismanagement of these engineering activities mainly resulted in detrimental outcomes for the river (Kabir et al., 2014). Despite being critical for the conservation of Halda, there is no significant research to elucidate perceptions of Halda-dependent people and to assess institutional responsibilities for integrated management. This study aimed to identify significant constraints in conserving the environment of the Halda River for suggesting integrated interventions, roles, and responsibilities of different stakeholders to conserve the environment of this unique natural heritage.

The study area for this work was the entire Halda basin (Figure 1) that spans an area of about 175,700 ha with diverse land uses including settlements (14%), water body (1%), vegetation (42%), agricultural land (42%), and bare soil (1%) (Chowdhury et al., 2020). The area includes the Patachara union of Ramgarh Upazila in Khagrachari district, parts of Fatikchari, Hathazari, Raozan Upazilas, and Chandgaon thana of Chattogram metropolitan area till the Halda's confluence with the Karnaphuli River at Kalurghat, Chattogram (Haque & Chowdhury, 2020; Islam et al., 2020).

The study framework (Table 1) was designed to collect opinions of major stakeholders (Table 1) related to Halda.

Halda-dependent main livelihood stakeholders comprise about 750 households from three groups – egg and fry collectors (around 600: 300 direct and 300 indirect); tobacco farmers (around 100); and farmers dependent on the Bhujpur rubber dam irrigation project (around 50) (Kibria, 2021). This study is based on interviews of 132 respondents from this population using different questionnaires for each group giving >20% sampling intensity. The sample included 62 egg and fry collectors (43 from Hathazari and 19 from Raozan), tobacco farmers (58 from Manikchhari), and 12 farmers dependent on rubber dam irrigation projects. Key informants included officials from concerned government institutions, e.g., Upazila administration, Fisheries office, River police, Department of Environment, Water Development Board, Forest Department, Chittagong Development Authority, and other institutions including the Integrated Development Foundation (IDF) – a non-government organization, elected politicians of Unions and Upazilas, and journalists reporting on the Halda River. Opinions from some researchers from the University of Chittagong and independent professionals with engagements in research and extension related to the Halda River have been considered. To understand the existing problems, to identify a way to overcome, and for making future plan regarding Halda river management through an integrated approach, Chittagong University faculty members (4) (Professor, Associate Professor, Assistant Professor, and Lecturer) have been interviewed based on their experience relevant to the Halda River.

Primary data were collected through face-to-face or telephone interviews depending on the respondents’ availability, willingness, and preference under COVID-induced restrictions during April–July 2021, respectively, by using structured questionnaires for Halda-dependent livelihood groups and key informant interview (KII) questionnaires. Secondary information was reviewed from the published journal article, newspaper reports, information from popular media, different blogs, and websites.

After digitizing data from questionnaires, data were cleaned by removing errors including missing value, repetition, unusual or outlier values, changes in data type, etc. Before analysis, data have been formatted according to the analytical needs and analyzed using Microsoft Excel.

The age profile of this exclusively male group of 62 respondents was – up to 40 years: 27%, 41–50 years: 23%, 51–60 years: 28%, 61–70 years: 17%, and 71–80 years: only 5%. About one-tenth of them had the experience of over half a century in egg and fish fry collection, while 45% reported having over 20 years of exposure in this vocation. These observations indicated the possibility of promoting women's participation to engage them more directly in conserving the river. On the other hand, though the people's experience in the group was good, the number of highly experienced egg collectors is declining, which dictated the need for a policy push to collect and document indigenous technology and knowledge on egg and fry collection from highly valued experienced collectors.

Figure 2(a) shows that in 1966–1970, the highest yield of egg was 106 kg. There was a data gap for 1971–1975 and 2006–2010. The egg yield fluctuated with an overall decreasing trend. In the 2016–2020 period, 30% of the egg collectors reported each collecting more than 18 kg of eggs. Figure 2(b) – as per the Halda River Research Laboratory records – shows fluctuations in the total amount of eggs collected from 2001 to 2021, with an overall declining trend though some fluctuating improvements are seen for the last few years. The highest egg collection was 47,700 kg in 2001 followed by a steady decline until 2004. Between the years 2014 and 2018, again, a sharp decline was evident – the adoption of various measures resulted in collecting about 25,500 kg of eggs – the highest amount since 2007. However, the amount again dropped to about 8,600 kg in 2021, primarily due to increased salinity (HRRL, 2021). These observations indicated the need for more methodical data collection and record-keeping for getting more accurate records and scientific investigations of root causes of observed fluctuation to assist in adopting management strategies for higher egg yield.

According to 80% of the respondents, egg yield has increased in the last 5 years (Figure 3(a)) due to ‘measures undertaken to save brood fish’ (80%), ‘prevention of pollution’ (67%), ‘stopping the motorboats’ (60%), and ‘COVID lockdown’ (10%). Those who considered decreasing trend in egg yield blamed ‘pollution’ (75%), ‘killing of brood fish’ (58%), ‘cutting of oxbow bends’ (50%) of the river, ‘destroying Kum (deep pools in river harboring brood fish)’ (42%), ‘reduced water flow’ (42%), etc. as causal factors (Figure 3(b)). The observations portrayed a confusing position regarding changes in the yield and associated causal factors, indicating the need to make people more aware and the research gap for informed policy decisions regarding the root causes of changes. Overall, all factors seemed to have linkage with the enforcement of administrative measures for the conservation of the Halda River, which strongly indicated the criticality of enforcing relevant measures.

The majority of the respondents (87%) preferred traditional earthen wells over modern concrete wells for hatching eggs. Perceived benefits (Figure 4(a)) of earthen over concrete wells included ‘healthy for hatching’ (48%), ‘mud being a source of better nutrition’ (40%), ‘colder environment for better fry development’ (25%), ‘high dissolve oxygen in earthen well’ (6%), ‘easy maintenance’ (6%), etc. On the contrary, respondents who preferred cemented well (Figure 4(b)) indicated ‘lower damage’ (63%), ‘lower labor requirement’ (25%), ‘higher growth’ (13%), and ‘fresh water facilities’ (13%) as reasons for their preference.

In the upper Halda valley, tobacco farming started around 2000, and due to aggressive extension by tobacco companies, it became the sole crop for the majority of the farmers in the Manikchari area by 2017. Tobacco farming has been considered as a factor contributing to the lower egg yield in Halda during the period for which, since 2017 through awareness-raising and intensive support program by the IDF with funding from the IFAD through the PKSF, almost all the farmers reverted to the farming of traditional crops (IDF, 2021).

In-person interviews of 58 ex-tobacco farmers from Manikchari Upazila provided their views, experience, and suggestions on reversion from tobacco farming and its bearings on them and the river environment. The age profile of this predominantly male group was 20–29 years: 11%, 30–39 years: 23%, 40–49 years: 32%, 50–59 years: 16%, 60–69 years: 14%, and above 70 years: 4%. Almost two-thirds of them (65%) were involved with tobacco cultivation for 0–5 years, and 10% were involved for more than 11 years. In comparison, since 2017, 98% of them have refrained from tobacco farming. The results indicated that tobacco was introduced in the area very recently at scale, and the campaign and interventions have reverted the tobacco farmers back to traditional crops.

Figure 5 describes the respondents’ perception of the merits and demerits of tobacco cultivation. On the merit side, it was financially profitable (64%) with easy loan access (47%), input support (31%), and ease of marketing (10%) (Figure 5(a)). On the demerit side, they have identified health impacts (31%), toxic gas release (31%), unfair price (29%), and government prohibition on tobacco (16%) (Figure 5(b)).

Around 81% of the farmers were convinced about the negative impacts of tobacco cultivation on Halda (Figure 6 left), and they've identified increased water toxicity (48%) and harm on brood fishes (33%) as the harmful effects of tobacco farming. The state of their perception indicated the efficacy of the awareness drives by the IDF to convince them to move away from tobacco farming to reduce harmful impacts thereof.

Respondents requested incentives for the complete phasing out of tobacco farming by banning it, including (Figure 7) training on farming methods and techniques (89%), supply of hybrid seeds of different crops (88%), and a fund for cultivation (77%). Besides, market expansion, knowledge on technology, providing modern equipment, insurance on cultivation, loan facilities, etc. were requested, respectively, by 44%, 42%, 33%, 28%, and 23% of the respondents. Around 15% identified improved seedlings, awareness campaigns, and regular meetings as desired supports.

Halda-based rubber dam irrigation project at the East Bhujpur village of Fatikchari Upazila is considered as one of the major concerns for the ecosystem of the Halda River. The dam diverts water during the dry season from the reduced dry-season flow from the upstream resulting in the inflow of saline water far upstream the river during the tides (Akhter, 2015). The beneficiaries of this project are farmers in the area from whom the 12 respondents interviewed were all males with age profiles 50 years or older: 50%, 40–49 years: 25%, and 30–39 years: 25%. All the respondents showed explicit knowledge about the dam, and their primary purpose was to utilize the dam for irrigation and cultivation purposes. They all considered the dam crucial for the local farmers. Only 8% of them perceived it to have negative impacts on the ecosystem of Halda. The observations indicated the need for focused awareness campaigns among the farmers on alternative irrigations measures and the negative impacts of the dam on the Halda River.

Among the egg collectors, 70% envisaged an increase in the brood fish population of Halda (Figure 8(a)). Among them, 95% gave credit to conservation measures, including initiatives for saving brood fish, 88% considered drives by local administration through mobile courts against illegal fishing for brood fish as a crucial measure, and 69% indicated a pollution-free environment of the river due to a conservation initiative as one of the critical factors. One-third of the respondents (30%) considered that the brood fish population is still declining, which, according to them, was due to a mix of factors (Figure 8(b)), including salinity intrusion (83%) and illegal fishing for brood fish (83%), industrial pollution (78%), tobacco cultivation (44%), siltation (33%), and dredging (22%). This finding indicated a gap in objective data on the brood fish population in Halda – an essential indicator of the ecosystem health of Halda. It indicated the policy push to promote in-depth work to monitor the brood fish population of Halda routinely and objectively.

Regarding the status of the dolphin population in Halda, 54% of the egg collectors envisaged a decrease, and they indicated administrative measures played a crucial role (41%) (Figure 9(a)) besides controlling the use of pesticides (35%) and controlling illegal fishing with nets (24%). On the contrary, those who believed (46%) that dolphin population have decreased (Figure 9(b)) – blamed pollution and dredging (40%), net fishing (33%), scarcity of food (20%), a decrease of freshwater, and river flow (7%). The variations in opinions are evidence of a data gap on the dolphin population – the most critical indicator of the ecosystem health of the Halda River, indicating the need for policy interventions for routine and objective monitoring of the dolphin population in the Halda River.

Regarding the factors straining the overall environment of the Halda River for fish breeding (Figure 10(a)), 70% picked killing of brood fish, 57% indicated cutting of oxbow bends, and 55% blamed establishment of sluice gates as critical factors. Besides, pollution, plying of motorboats, and siltation were mentioned, respectively, by 48%, 48%, and 37% of the respondents as factors impeding the fish breeding environment of the Halda River. On the other hand, environmental pollution, fishing with a net, and presence of the rubber dam were vital deteriorating factors of the spawning environments in the river (Figure 10(b)).

Egg collectors were asked for their opinion on an effective working organization for the betterment of the Halda River among Upazila administration, Department of Fisheries, Department of Environment, Water Development Board, Integrated Development Foundation (IDF)/similar NGOs (Figure 11). Upazila administration seemed to gain the highest confidence (65%), followed by the Department of Fisheries (48%) and IDF/other similar organizations (8%). Despite providing support to the Upazila administration and Department of Fisheries, the IDF scored lower confidence due to their indirect and support role, which masked their visibility. Similarly, despite doing a lot for the conservation of the Halda River, the Department of Environment has not been mentioned even by local people due to their episodic, indirect, and distant roles. Keeping Upazila administration in focus, conservation initiatives can be taken by collaboration with other administrative authorities for integrated management of the Halda River.

Key informants from administrative bodies gave their reflections on existing challenges and barriers for Halda conservation which included ‘pollution from various sources (73%)’ (Figure 12), ‘dredging and broodfish hunting’ and ‘dredging (64%),’ ‘illegal fishing with the net,’ and ‘rubber dam’ (55%). In addition, 45% and 36%, respectively, of them blamed ‘lack of awareness and engine boat’ while 27% blamed ‘establishment of the sluice gate,’ ‘siltation problem,’ and ‘cutting of oxbow bend.’ Overall, their opinions listed the main barriers against the conservation of the river. A root cause analysis is required for which SWOT-AHP or multicriteria analysis can be done on Halda to address the most fundamental of these factors to get more significant impacts rather than addressing them all separately.

Researchers and independent professionals expressed their concerns on salinity increase, the inflow of agrochemicals, lack of awareness, inadequate scientific information, too many stakeholders with conflicting interests, intent to withdraw more water from the river for urban and industrial supply, designing conservation projects without a root cause analysis, and water quality degradation as existing and emerging causes threatening fish and another biodiversity of the Halda River. They emphasized addressing risks of frustration and change of attitude among the stakeholders due to unexpected fluctuations in the amount of egg yield. Besides, they have indicated the need to keep up the good work to keep industrial pollution, illegal fishing, destruction of aquatic biodiversity (e.g., dolphin), and sand extraction for the continuation of improvement in the Halda River ecosystem. Integration of efforts has been marked as critical since policy guidance are coming discretely from different agencies and committees with varying stakes and interests.

Based on stakeholders’ opinions and recommendations, previous studies, and analysis of the existing situation, this study proposes an integrated management approach for environmental protection of the Halda River (Figure 13). This framework is based on the interests and powers of stakeholders in relation to the underlying causes of the existing and ensuing challenges facing the river. The framework has also considered the experiences from past interventions. It has been prepared considering some short- and long-term interventions from administrative and environmental perspectives mentioning the associated barriers and their solutions. From the viewpoint of administrative roles, first and foremost is that a single Halda Heritage Committee needs to be formed consisting of the representatives from all the mentioned stakeholders as the river has already been declared as ‘Bangabandhu Fisheries Heritage.’ Besides, administration should focus on removal of rubber dam prior to that require renovation of all the existing sluice gates and concrete dams in environment and fish-friendly way. Considering the environmental perspectives, zoning based on river susceptibility needs to be done like the breeding ground as very susceptible zone – where no infrastructure can be allowed, banning of clear cut, moderately susceptible zone – where small infrastructure can be allowed by ensuring water flow and less susceptible zone with controlling the agricultural pollution. On the other hand, egg collectors and farmers who were previously engaged in tobacco farming require training and follow-up training on egg collection, hatching, fry production, and organic farming techniques, respectively, using up to date technology keeping the traditional practices in parallel. Kum conservation along with controlling the riverbank erosion in alternative ways, not using the cement block, and stopping sand quarrying are the most important interventions needed to be addressed with urgency. Also, dolphin conservation is on the priority list. On the contrary, for pollution control and prevention, permanently stopping dumping of waste in the local canal, preventing the release of wastes from scattered illegal poultry farms, clear water flow by digging small canals and streams, not to restart Asian Paper Mill until the effluent treatment plant (ETP) and other pollution control measures in design and implementation, inspection of all the machineries and effluent treatment plant setup before restarting Hathazari Peaking Power Plant have to be checked. But lack of political good will, coordination, expertise, etc. may impose barrier to these interventions which need to be overcome with the proposed solutions. We hope that the proposed framework if consulted by the concerned agencies and policymakers will bring about positive changes to ensure the conservation of this critical river. Moreover, such involvement ensuring public participation will work as fruitful input for policy formulation in other natural resources (i.e., fisheries and coastal) management issues.

The study suggests a cohesive management framework based on the opinion, roles, and responsibilities of different stakeholders (i.e., egg collectors, tobacco farmers, rubber dam users, administrative bodies, and researchers) in an integrated way to conserve the environment of the only natural fish spawning ground of Bangladesh. Moreover, several suggestions have come out from the relevant stakeholders that need to be addressed in the future, which will help ensure the sustenance of the Halda River. Among the stakeholders, the egg collectors have emphasized increasing the monitoring of all the adjacent areas of the Halda River with stopping illegal brood fish catch with nets. Besides, most tobacco farmers have urged for training on cultivation methods and techniques, requested for providing hybrid seeds, funding for cultivation market expansion, providing knowledge on technology, providing modern equipment, insurance on cultivation, loan facilities, etc. Moreover, recommendations for the management of drainage systems in irrigation areas through concrete drains or underground pipes, the establishment of deep tube wells, arrangement of an electric pump irrigation system by the government, etc. have been recommended by the rubber dam users. Besides suggestions for proper surveillance surrounding the River Halda, creating awareness, collective working effort, enforcement of law and rehabilitation of the fisherman, the establishment of the modern waste management system, building up individual authority for the Halda River management, taking necessary steps for controlling pollution, conservation of the riverbank, tree plantation on the riverside, and focusing on Halda development projects have been suggested by the administrative sides. On the other hand, research professionals have given focus on a sewerage treatment plant for waste management, fulfilling the water demand of the industrial city located in the Mirsarai-Feni region from the nearest, most straightforward, and economically viable source as a replacement of the Halda River, more research on dolphin population, local community involvement in safeguarding process, etc. All of these needs to be addressed in policy on a priority basis for ensuring the sustainability of the Halda River in an integrated management way by mentioning the future activities, relevant stakeholders, potential barriers, and possible solutions for the Halda River.

The authors are thankful to the Palli Karma Sahayak Foundation (PKSF) for providing the necessary funds and acknowledging the contributions of egg collectors, tobacco farmers, and users of rubber dam irrigation projects. Authors’ heartiest appreciation to the Upazila Nirbahi Officers, fisheries officers, officials of the Integrated Development Foundation, Department of Environment, Bangladesh Water Development Board, Forest Department, river police, politicians, media people, and faculty members of the University of Chittagong for their indispensable viewpoints. Besides, the authors want to mention the name of Ghazi Afreen Asmat (Advocate, Chittagong Court), Ramiz Moktader (MS student, Institute of Forestry and Environmental Sciences, University of Chittagong) and Md Badruzzaman Suhag (MS student, Department of Statistics, University of Chittagong) for their contribution to document translation, GIS mapping, and data input, respectively. Moreover, authors are highly grateful to Mohammad Mosharraf Hossain, PhD (Professor, Institute of Forestry and Environmental Sciences, University of Chittagong) for valuable comments for manuscript preparation. The author is also indebted to the Halda River Research Laboratory which played a significant role in preparing this paper.

This work received financial support from the Palli Karma Sahayak Foundation (PKSF).

All relevant data are included in the paper or its Supplementary Information.