A comprehensive view of existing policy directives and future interventions for water reuse in India

TWW

Treated Wastewater

USEPA

United States Environmental Protection Agency

WHO

World Health Organization

FAO

Food and Agricultural Organization

JICA

Japan International Cooperation Agency

CPHEEO

Central Public Health Engineering and Environmental Organization

JNNURM

Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission

NMCG

National Mission for Clean Ganga

AMRUT

Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation

TPP

Thermal Power Plant

EU

European Union

JJM

Jal Jeevan Mission

MOHUA

Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs

WWTP

Wastewater Treatment Plant

ULB

Urban Local Body

GIS

Geographic Information System

GPS

Global Positioning System

DPR

Detailed Progress Report

PPP

Public Private Partnership

SLPHC

State Level High Power Committee

SLTC

State Level Technical Committee

PHED

Public Health Engineering Department

MBR

Membrane Bioreactor

MBBR

Moving Bed Biofilm reactor

SBR

Sequential Batch Reactor

CPCB

Central Pollution Control Board

SPCB

State Pollution Control Board

WW

Wastewater

STW

Secondary Treated Water

ETP

Effluent Treatment Plant

NGT

National Green Tribunal

STP

Sewage Treatment Plant

SBM

Swachh Bharat Mission

UPPCB

Uttar Pradesh Pollution Control Board

Throughout the world, rapid population growth and industrial development have resulted in rising water demands, surpassing the existing supplies and creating a water shortage in most of the countries including India. In India, the prevailing water resources are over-exploited due to declining water levels and high water pollution due to mixing of surface and ground water with industrial and other pollutants. The alarming water availability situation in the country has fuelled the need to search for alternative water augmentation strategies.

For supplementing the deficient water resources, alternate water supply interventions such as wastewater reuse has been adopted by many countries worldwide. Reuse of treated wastewater (TWW) has emerged as an economical and environmentally sustainable alternative along with many monetary and non-monetary benefits. Unfortunately, the growth of water reuse is restricted in India due to various technical, social, economic and legal barriers such as lack of techno-economic infrastructure and regulatory framework and limited mind-set on ‘closed-water-loop’ due to limited public awareness.

Research shows that the policy framework plays a major role in the implementation of water reuse projects in any region throughout the world. Planning of a water reuse project is affected by several laws, policies and regulations. A strong regulatory structure is quite essential for a water reuse scheme. It also helps in establishing the trust of the local community in the water reuse schemes. For example, if in any region, reuse of a certain amount of wastewater is mandatory as per the law, the rate of reuse would be better in that region. Furthermore, policy incentives for reuse of TWW can increase its usage. Past studies have shown that the formulation of water policies specific to recycling and reuse have contributed to increase in water reuse in Australia (Rogers et al., 2015; Watson et al., 2017), California, USA, etc. (Dolnicar et al., 2011; Bischel et al., 2012; Dzidic & Green, 2012). To increase the efficacy of the legal framework, it must be conjoined with quality standards and effective enforcement approach. Regulatory frameworks and water quality guidelines related to safe reuse of TWW for various applications have been developed by several countries and organizations, such as WHO Guidelines (2006, 2017); USEPA Guidelines (2012) and FAO guidelines (User's Manual for Irrigation with Treated Wastewater, 2003; World Health Organization, 2006, 2017; USEPA, 2012).

The overall planning, implementation and success of reuse projects depends highly on the effective policies, institutional framework and regulations. Environmental legislation plays an essential role in the adoption of water reuse as part of water and wastewater management. The long-term feasibility of integrated water management systems is reliant on sustainable guidelines and strict regulatory framework.

To safeguard the public trust and eliminate associated health risks, it is essential to form strict regulations and standards for water reuse. Legal code of conduct must be strengthened by adequate standards and enforcement mechanisms. To reinforce the legal structure related to water reuse, it is also important for all the involved authorities to coordinate with each other and plan for water reuse at local or state level. Many a times, the projects are unsuccessful due to split ownership and incompatible decision-making between various departments involved in water supply and wastewater management. The institutional capacity also holds great significance in implementing water reuse. Any municipality must be capable of developing, operating and maintaining a water reuse system, while holding the confidence of the community as a reliable and trustworthy organization.

Studies by various researchers suggest that it is of the utmost priority to form regulatory standards and a framework for execution of water reuse systems, especially in developing countries like India (Hidalgo et al., 2007; Adewumi et al., 2010; Shastri & Raval, 2012; Saldías et al., 2015; Sgroi et al., 2018; Voulvoulis, 2018). Presently, there is a lack of coordination between the authorities in charge of water supply and wastewater management in India. This power fragmentation causes delays in strategic implementation, interdepartmental disagreements, resource division and other complexities that make the water reuse project far more complex than required (Lautze et al., 2014). Limited synchronization affects the data availability in terms of coverage, robustness and efficiency which demands for a national regulatory framework to implement water reuse projects in India.

Starkl et al. (2015) analysed the feasibility of establishing water reuse systems for irrigation in Hyderabad and suggested that the governmental support in terms of treatment train setup and other incentives would be instrumental in the successful implementation of reuse projects. Sharma et al., (2016) focussed on the development of an integrated water management system for Shimla city and found that the lack of policies and coordination among the stakeholders has led to the inadequacy of resources which hinders the development of an integrated approach. The authors highlighted the importance of developing strict guidelines promoting water reuse for adequate water management. Drangert & Sharatchandra (2017) evaluated the water balance scenario in Bengaluru city and found a poorly developed and implemented water management system to be the main cause of water scarcity in the city and suggested that the implementation of a planned water reuse system supported by strict guidelines can improve the water supply situation considerably without affecting the natural water resources. Alley (2018) reviewed a series of reuse case studies to assess the factors involved in successful and effective implementation of water reuse in India and observed that the success of a reuse scheme depends on strong institutional and regulatory framework along with consideration to the economic feasibility.

While policy directions and guiding frameworks in India acknowledge the need for reuse of TWW, the integration of the concept at the planning stage of water supply scheme development is still missing due to the lack of a comprehensive policy at national and state levels. Moreover, the design and operation and maintenance aspects for the management of such projects and tariff structure for the sale of treated water for various applications have not been taken up aggressively. In this study, the assessment of existing policy framework for water reuse is done to understand the gaps in the structure and recommend future policy interventions.

Recently, Government of India, in the annual financial budget of 2021–2022, Jal Jeevan Mission (JJM), under the Department of Drinking Water and Sanitation, Ministry of Jal Shakti has been directed to make 500 cities, water-secure, i.e. to provide 100% water supply coverage and septage management to all the households and sewage management under the AMRUT (Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation) plan of the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (MOHUA). Furthermore, the mission would focus on promotion of circular economy by practising wastewater recycling and reuse, water conservation and rejuvenation of water bodies. The plan is to develop an institutional mechanism to meet 20% of any city's demand with TWW (Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation -AMRUT, MOHUA, Govt. of India, 2021). Along with that, Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM) 2.0 is launched in October, 2021, wherein wastewater treatment and reuse shall be undertaken for all urban local bodies with population less than 100,000. Also, as per the National building code of India, treated sewage (black water) and sullage (grey water) have to be used for toilet flushing, fire protection, horticulture, etc. in commercial and high-rise residential complexes.

Taking a cue from the central government programmes and missions, several states have also formulated their own wastewater reuse policies to improve the water security and encourage water reuse, as discussed in Supplementary Material, appendix A. Due to differences in the geography and socio-economic status, the institutional arrangements, selection of treatment processes and other considerations, vary in the respective state policy frameworks.

National Green Tribunal (NGT) of India, a specialized judicial body for adjudicating environmental cases in the country, has directed all the states/union territories (UTs) to plan and develop action plans for utilization of TWW and submit the same to the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) for assessment (‘Order of the National Green Tribunal regarding utilization of treated wastewater from STPs’, Govt. of India, 2019). Some of the states have formulated action plans or draft policy document/guidelines for usage of TWW, such as Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Puducherry and Daman and Diu as discussed in Table 1. Some of the states have elaborative action plans, whereas some states have very limited information and promote water reuse through their existing water policy guidelines.

The information in regard to planning and implementation of water reuse is not available for the states of Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, Sikkim, Tripura and UTs of Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Ladakh, Lakshadweep. The union territory of Jammu and Kashmir has developed a general document containing the steps to implement a water reuse project and the business models for PPP along with techno-economic considerations. There is no region-specific plan of action for implementing water reuse. Even though, several state level policies and action plans have been developed to implement water reuse, there are many drawbacks which inhibit the effective implementation of water reuse systems.

The need for a national policy on reuse of TWW is imminent. To address the issue, the National Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG) under the Ministry of Jal Shakti in cooperation with the India–European Union (EU) water partnership and GIZ, a German development agency, resources for formulating a national policy. The draft of the policy released in October, 2020 is focussed on setting guidelines for safe reuse of treated municipal wastewater and providing a guiding framework for the states for implementation of water reuse. The roles and responsibilities of key institutions and authorities have been defined at both central and state levels. Short-term targets have been set for the states to develop state policy for water reuse and focus on developing sewerage network and targeted reuse volumes. Moreover, the details regarding the funding sources for water reuse projects are also discussed. Some information on the available treatment technologies in India is also provided, along with detailed information on business models to support water reuse programmes.

As witnessed, the development of policies and regulatory framework requires multi-level stakeholder engagement and intervention. Stakeholder participation is fundamental for supporting and enhancing water reuse implementation. It is very important to consult the stakeholders at different levels while planning a water reuse project, so as to address the issues, if any. Discussions with the experts on the existing guidelines and framework can give an insight into the existing constraints and future opportunities which might help in improving the approach. In this study, multiple stakeholder consultations have been held to discuss the existing state polices and the draft of the national policy. From the analysis, following may be concluded.

• A detailed assessment of treatment technologies for reuse in different sectors is not considered in the state water reuse policies (e.g. Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Punjab).

• There is a lack of water quality norms/standards for different reuse applications.

• In some policies, the role of stakeholders is not clearly defined which might lead to confusion.

• Elaborative information regarding the operation and maintenance of water reuse systems is not provided (e.g. Chhattisgarh).

• There is no clarity on the implementing agency for water reuse projects (e.g. Haryana).

• Information regarding public communication and outreach programmes is very scarce (e.g. Punjab).

• Though, certain policies have mentioned interest in the resource recovery, but to achieve the same the guidelines are not there.

• The policy frameworks have limited information on monetary and non-monetary incentives in the form of subsidies, water reuse certificates (especially for industries), incentivization of tariff policies, mandates and standards, etc.

• There is no information on measures to encourage and enforce the usage of TWW.

• No information is provided on the legal actions to be taken in case of non-compliance of mandatory water reuse by the municipal authorities or the users.

• The information on bulk water users is provided in many plans, but the market mechanism of TWW is not discussed.

• The information on the tariff system of TWW is varying and unclear in different states.

• Some states do not have specific plans related to water reuse in terms of potential markets and planning approach to follow.

• Most of the states are focussed only on urban reuse of wastewater and the plan for water reuse in the rural areas is neglected.

• The draft national policy extensively covers many aspects of water reuse and addresses some limitations of the existing state policies, but there are many factors related to development of standards/norms, practice of reuse, revenue generation models, etc. yet to be considered. In order to address the discussed policy drawbacks, some policy recommendations are given as follows.

• The planning and operating aspects for the management of wastewater and its reuse must be given attention incorporating the different aspects, related to building of techno-economic infrastructure and social willingness, as delineated in the present study.

• The institutional and monitoring capacity needs to be strengthened by increasing the coordination and engagement of key stakeholders and local community.

• Inclusion of guidelines for developing community-specific programmes considering the emotional determinants established in the study.

• Legislative policies to be designed by considering the established social factors that drive the community trust and acceptance towards water reuse.

• The guiding framework must include a detailed information on wastewater and sludge treatment and reuse technologies and quality standards for specific end uses.

• Development of designated and restricted freshwater zones to enforce usage of TWW.

• Regulatory guidelines for risk management and the provision of safe water are also needed to build the integrity of treated water as a reliable alternative and to increase market viability.

• Effective funding and revenue generating mechanisms that allow cost recovery and economic sustenance of wastewater treatment and reuse infrastructure must be established (PPP models).

• Inclusion of financial as well as non-financial incentives for the users, especially, industries may be beneficial.

PPPs play an important role in supporting and enhancing the economic feasibility of wastewater reuse projects. The design and implementation of reuse projects require a lot of planning and capital investment. In PPPs, a private entity takes on the responsibility of project implementation, including financing, and invests private equity or some sort of debt into the project. Private sector engagement in various designing and operational fields is an upcoming trend in India. Various multi- and bilateral financial institutions have put in efforts for expansion of water reuse in the country serving two-fold purpose of technology transfer and capital investments. There are different PPP models for wastewater management and reuse in India such as build, operate and transfer (BOT) end-user, BOT annuity, BOT user charge and the design, build and operate (DBO) model. Some of the successful PPP models for wastewater reuse in India are based on BOT user charge (Vishakhapatnam Wastewater Recycling project and Surat-Bamroli Wastewater Recycling project), DBO (Chennai Metro Water Supply and Sanitation Board (CMWSSB)) and BOT end user (Nagpur-MAHAGENCO (Maharashtra State Power Generation Company) project (Kumar & Goyal, 2020).

The assessment of the existing policy framework for encouraging water reuse systems shows that the regulatory structure in respect of wastewater reclamation and reuse is in developing stages in India. Even though certain policies and legal advisories exist centrally, the regulation and implementation at community levels need boosting, planning, awareness and implementation. The governance analysis concludes that target-based guidelines and technical regulations with clearly defined national water reuse standards for various applications need to be developed at the earliest. Promotion of ongoing water reuse efforts is essential, especially in the new areas, where water supply plans are to be developed. In this study, certain policy recommendations related to planning, socio-economic and operational aspects are given to encourage water reuse in India. It can also be achieved by raising awareness regarding the value of wastewater among the political authorities, benefactors, municipal societies and other stakeholders through outreach programmes.

All relevant data are included in the paper or its Supplementary Information.

The authors declare there is no conflict.