Climate change and adaptive capacity in the community of Diaguitas, Chile: A descriptive-comparative vision in two time periods

There is robust scientific evidence that climate dynamics have been changing (IPCC, 2023) for several years to become one of the most severe problems for humanity. Various geographical areas in the world have experienced the impact of these transformations, generating complications in the sociocultural, economic, and environmental spheres. One of these areas is Chile, which is most vulnerable to climate transformations due to different natural conditions of the territory. These transformations have been observed for some years, especially those related to the availability of water resources (Hagen et al., 2022) with a number of predictions for the future in precipitation flows, temperature patterns, and occurrences of extreme events throughout the country (Garreaud et al., 2020; Vicuña et al., 2021; Bambach et al., 2022; Bobadilla, Stehr & Toro, 2024). To address this adverse scenario, a series of orientations has been introduced at the public policy level (Rojas, 2019; Gobierno de Chile, 2023), and through legislative amendments to the Climate Change Framework Law [Law 21455] (Biblioteca del Congreso Nacional, 2022a). These adjustments have been implemented, considering the changes in agricultural production systems or the availability of water for human consumption; these changes may entail possible rationing across the national territory (Alvarado & de la Vega, 2022) and the emerging need to build water desalination plants (Carrasco, 2023).

One of the areas especially vulnerable to climate change is located in the Coquimbo Region and is manifested in the numerous exposures to which the rural communities in the territory are subjected (Young et al., 2010; Montaña et al., 2016). The region has human settlements in the coastal and foothill areas, with its economic base primarily centered around agriculture, mining, and fishing (BCN, 2021). The climate dynamics have changed over the years, reflecting in the availability of local water resources and impacts on the well-being and quality of life of rural residents (Alfaro & Cortés, 2020; Álvarez & Yáñez, 2022; Pareja, 2023). In chronological terms, climatic variations in this area that are mainly characterized by deficits in precipitation have become more pronounced, especially during the period 2010–2015 (CR2, 2015). However, the ‘mega drought’ has persisted for over 10 years and has had various impacts on social and economic spheres (BBC News Mundo, 2019). Although the hydrological system has shown an improvement in the 2015–2016 period (CEAZA, 2017), as indicated by the volume of water in reservoirs (CEAZA, 2022) and the accumulation of snow and subsequent thaws in the summer season, the future outlook remains critical, uncertain, and adverse due to factors such as natural oscillations (ENSO), climate change, and anthropogenic activities that demand excessive water consumption by the agricultural and mining sectors (Pizarro, et al., 2022), among other factors. Under these conditions, tackling this climate and water scenarios, understanding adaptive capacity is paramount to mitigating the effects of environmental change (Seaborn et al., 2021), and it is essential to strengthen communities in mitigation, adaptation, and the development of resilience to climate change.

This research is based on the theoretical framework of the adaptive capacity wheel (ACW) (Gupta et al., 2010) and studies the factors affecting adaptive capacity from an institutional perspective (Gupta et al., 2016; Ghorbani, Behboudi & Zarghami, 2024). This approach is based on six categories (variety, learning capacity, room for autonomous change, leadership, resources, and fair governance) from which 22 criteria are derived. The literature highlights the use of this framework of analysis over time in a variety of subjects: water (Grecksch, 2013, 2015; Saraswat & Gupta, 2024), spatial planning (Gupta et al., 2016), flood risk (Cosoveanu et al., 2019), rural municipalities (Jacobs et al., 2019), green bonds (Saravade & Weber, 2020), extreme events (Nguyen et al., 2021; Ro & Garfin, 2022), infrastructure (Huddleston et al., 2023), and vulnerability (Saikia & Mahanta, 2024).

In this context, considering the water and climate panorama, future projections, the importance of the Elqui valley for the economy of the area, and the local culture and regional identity, knowing how human groups (institutions and community organizations) have developed or modified their adaptive mechanisms over time is essential. To accomplish this research goal, our work focused on the town of Diaguitas as an example of the rural communities in the inner valleys of the region that include manifestations of the Diaguita native people and culture. The objective of this study is to describe and compare the institutional adaptive capacity of the people of Diaguitas in past (2004–2007) and present (2018–2019) periods from a perspective of climate change and water resources.

This qualitative case study has descriptive and comparative approaches that have been designed to evaluate the adaptive capacity of the Diaguitas in two periods, from a longitudinal perspective (Neale, 2020) with emphasis on the course of time and changes or stability of practices, perceptions, and interpretations with a focus on the comparison of social dynamics, perception, and different changes over time (Hollstein, 2021). The first covered the years 2004–2007 based on findings in the international project Institutional Adaptation to Climate Change (IACC). The second period, spanning 2018–2019, drew upon information derived from the international project Community Conservation Research Network (CCRN).

In the first phase of study, 15 semistructured interviews (N= 15) were administered which addressed vulnerability in terms of sensitivity and adaptation to climate change. The researchers generated an interview guideline based on the following dimensions: (a) vulnerability to climate change, (b) climate change mitigation and adaptation, (c) natural risks. The interviews had an average duration of 1 h. Regarding the sociodemographic background, the age range was between 28 and 62 years, with a distribution by gender: 40% male and 60% female. All stated that they belonged to local institutions (social-community organizations) related to water, social or productive resources, and productive issues.

In the second period, data were collected through a two series of focus groups (N = 25 participants) centered on gathering perceptions of the adaptive capacity and conservation of water resources in view of the consequences of climate change. The focus group guideline was elaborated by the research team based on: (a) water situation, (b) social elements, (c) adaptive capacity wheel dimensions, and (d) projections. The interviews lasted approximately 2 h. The age range was between 38 and 72 years, with a distribution by gender: 48% male and 62% female. On this occasion, members of different local institutions (social-community organizations) participated: linked to water resources and productive areas, as well as members of sports clubs, groups of elderly people, etc. The primary focus was on gathering perceptions regarding adaptive capacity and the conservation of water resources in light of the consequences of climate change. Wherever possible, the same institutions and individuals made up the sample in both study phases, and for more details, the implications of this methodological choice will be discussed in the final section of this article.

The interviews and focus groups were transcribed and analyzed using the thematic content analysis technique (Mayring, 2022), with NVIVO10 program, complemented with collected field notes, and a review of documents including plans, programs, and regulations related to water resources and climate change. Once the coding was completed, an analysis of the main results was presented in tables to describe and compare the categories included in The Adaptive Capacity Wheel methodological framework (ACW) (Gupta et al., 2010). This strategy proposes a scoring system based on five criteria from the qualitative value: 2 (positive effect), 1 (slightly positive effect), 0 (neutral or no effect), −1 (slightly negative effect), and 2 (negative effect) represented by colors from dark green (positive effect) to red (negative effect). Once the qualitative scores were obtained, the dimensions and subdimensions were plotted in a circle in their respective color. The choice of this framework is linked to the fact that the categories are qualified to indicate the strong and weak dimensions of adaptive capacity (Gupta et al., 2016) from a qualitative perspective. Along with this, ACW is linked to the fact that the fieldwork was conducted in the territory in the framework of the IACC project and in follow-up conducted with the CCRN initiative, accounted for the maintenance of the set of social institutions linked to water management. This is linked to previous studies carried out with a similar methodology, from a regional approach (Hurlbert & Gupta, 2017; Hurlbert & Gupta, 2019).

A systemic and general approach was used to facilitate understanding the community as a system composed of and intervened and influenced by internal institutions (e.g., rural drinking water committee, sports clubs, associations, educational establishments, local governments, and neighborhood councils) and by external institutions (e.g., government ministries and agencies, municipality, and entrepreneurial sector); the analysis focused on the interaction between both types of institutions. To optimize and validate the results, the procedure of ‘Triangulation of researchers’ (Flick, 2015) and Trangulation of information sources (Flick, 2018) was performed in both time periods.

The Elqui Valley has great cultural and tourist importance. For example, approximately 10,632 tourists visited the location during the summer of 2019 (Instituto Nacional de Estadísticas, 2019) and filled 80% of the accommodation capacity during the summer of 2021 (Carvajal, 2021). Tourists are attracted by the beauty of the surroundings, its gastronomy, and the offer of astro-tourism. This fact has consolidated the tourist activity of the region at the national level where wellness and adventure tourism aiming at a ‘connection with nature’ are prominent (Serey, 2021). This destination has been highlighted internationally (El Mercurio, 2018), showing a significant potential for development due to its distinctive characteristics (Montemaggi, 2018).

Diaguitas has its origins in colonial times and is currently administrated locally by the Municipality of Vicuña. The Diaguitas derives from the indigenous agro-pottery groups that inhabited the valleys of the region when the Spaniards arrived during the 17th century. This indigenous presence represents an important element of identity that is present at a sociocultural level.

Specifically, the indigenous Diaguita people (Diaguita Culture) archaeologically developed for at least 400 years before the Spanish conquest throughout the Norte Chico region (Museo Chileno de Arte Precolombino, 2023). These people had their origins in groups of hunters who settled in the western area of the Andes Mountains (2500 BC) (Memoria Chilena-National Library, 2023). The evolution of these groups allowed for the emergence of the ‘El Molle’ cultural complex (integrated systems of cultural traits) that is well known for its production of pottery with geometric designs and irrigation systems. Subsequently, the ‘Las Ánimas’ complex (800–1000 AD) emerged, leading to the development of the Diaguita Culture. In its classical period, the Diaguitas continued to optimize their irrigation systems and distinctive pottery with typical designs and colors. An example of this is their worldview in which they highlighted pottery as a testament to their social dynamics and beliefs that they expressed in designs like the ‘jarro pato’ (a type of traditional craft in the shape of a duck) (for further details, see https://www.museolimari.gob.cl/).

Toward the end of the 15th century (1480), the Inca Empire invaded the region inhabited by the Diaguitas. This period witnessed a process of transculturation wherein the construction of roads and irrigation systems continued and improved. The ceramic remains of the ‘dual’ type suggest a strong political alliance between both peoples as well as the existence of a worldview associated with two interconnected worlds through shamans (a person who makes predictions, invokes spirits, and exercises healing practices using occult powers and natural products [Oxford Languages]). The presence of the so-called ‘Pachamama’ (earth and fertility goddess) predicts great respect for nature, which is observed to the present day in the canal cleaning ritual. Subsequently, from 1560 onward, the Diaguitas were conquered by the Spanish, leading to the establishment of an ‘encomienda’ (system and the designation of ‘Indian towns’). The subsequent process of ‘mestizaje’ (mixing of ethnic and cultural groups) would have resulted in the reduction of the Diaguita population and the loss of the native Kakan language (Lorca, 2007). With the emergence of the republican period in 1823, the Chilean state gradually incorporated territories under indigenous control and colonized various areas of the country (north and south) with European immigrants. In 1990, with the return of democracy, progress was made in recognizing indigenous peoples, and regulatory instruments were developed as evidenced by the Indigenous Law No. 19,253 (BCN, 1993). Today, the locality is administered by the Municipality of Vicuña, and their legacy is expressed through the persistence of the diagrammatic style of their ceramics, the production and sale of which is one of the region's tourist attractions.

The results of this research, linked to institutional adaptive capacity, are expressed in two time periods according to the main categories of the theoretical approach: variety, capacity to learn, room for autonomous change, leadership, resources, and fair governance. New emerging dimensions were included.

There are formal instances to ask questions and give opinions when problems or difficulties arise at the local level. Along with this, it is possible to clarify certain guidelines for action to respond to doubts. A certain degree of interaction and instances to establish courses of action are visualized. However, there is a deeper level where external institutions interact (e.g., Ministry of Public Works), but local (internal) institutions are not considered.

At the internal level, a framework of trust has been generated that relies on the actions of the institutions, but this trust has not been facilitated by the interventions of external institutions and dynamics have not been developed to promote learning. This situation changes in the case of water management since some regulations and guidelines established by external institutions (Dirección General de Aguas) have allowed internal institutions to modify their guidelines and improve their own processes. Openness to uncertainty seems to have diminished both internally and externally, with a short-term view prevailing (e.g., possibility of natural disasters due to long-term climate changes).

As per the participants in this research, government institutions are deemed responsible for information management. However, the information is described as ‘quantitative’, presented in a ‘digital’ format, and centralized in offices, resulting in a lack of engagement. Both internal and external organizations have access to information and data management; however, the interviewees emphasize the need to enhance the optimization of methods for disseminating knowledge. The interviewees did not perceive the construction and infrastructure in ravines or slopes as risky despite the previous history of mudslides in their current areas. However, a sense of helplessness in the face of a potential mudslide was expressed in the following statement: ‘That's why I tell you, if a cataclysm happens, we're in trouble, but the river will pass where we're standing…’ Finally, there is awareness and respect for environmental conditions, and there is a mainly productive perspective (agriculture).

Leaders in water management (internal institutions) intended to undertake long-term actions. In this area, the internal organization could provide spaces and activities to facilitate leadership, but their initiatives collide with external (governmental) institutionality, based on rigid legal regulations. An example of this: ‘The mayor pointed out that she has to ask for advice from the city council for the community to obtain legal status to install a sewerage system’. Similar expressions seem to emphasize that the diversity of interests among community members prevented sufficient social cohesion that would favor a common goal: a better quality of life for its inhabitants, from a bureaucracy perspective, which hinders collaboration between internal and external institutions.

The community's economic resources are unequal. Some inhabitants have a source of income, while others rely upon a subsistence economy. This difference is also observed by the internal institutions, some of which have sufficient resources, while others do not. With respect to human resources, the external institutions do not have enough personnel to operate efficiently, and the same employees usually fill many different roles and perform many different tasks. Internal institutions are coupled in legal terms with external institutions.

Members and representatives of internal institutions noted a lack of support from external institutions, with a perception that they are ‘distant and bureaucratic’. In contrast, internal institutions are perceived as having ‘clear and fair rules’; however – in general – they use financial resources inefficiently, although more effectively in terms of water distribution. The needs of internal institutions and the community and the apparent lack of satisfying these needs have led to the perception that external institutions are ‘not working well’ and do not meet the demands of society. The governing process of organizing to make decisions requires attention and improvement in Diaguitas. Governance of water resources that is co-managed by the state and the local community occasions disagreements of perspectives among the different actors.

In this area of analysis, there was minimal community participation within the internal institutions, where older leaders have assumed various roles and have been retained over the years. In this context, the new generations showed limited interest in assuming leadership responsibilities and executing community initiatives. There was a perceptible level of cohesion, which facilitates the execution of activities. The community and its institutions moved in a fluctuating dynamic between collaboration and skepticism, influenced by historical memories of various events that have unfolded over time (e.g., history of disagreements, etc.).

Over time, there has been a better understanding of the different institutions involved in the issues of water resources, climate change, and risk management. There has also been greater clarity about the management and tasks to be carried out by each institution, but the idea that a number of institutions perform similar tasks has persisted and thereby led to confusion. This confusion has minimized to make positive changes in the variety of frameworks and diversity of problems, thereby constituting an improvement in the institutions related to water resources. The changes have been manifested at the level of formal institutions, but external institutions have not yet incorporated indigenous practices and knowledge in the management of water resources.

An overall improvement can be observed in the capacity of residents to learn primarily because internal institutions have established improved mechanisms that help to create ‘institutional memory’ through processes and management practices. It is necessary to consider the interaction between internal and external institutions and the level of distrust that has resulted from unfulfilled commitments or negotiation processes. A complete modification of institutional patterns relating to external institutions at the central government has not been accomplished. The changes have been conceptualized within formal institutions, yet external institutions have not fully embraced or incorporated indigenous practices and knowledge in the governance of water resources

Internally, a set of mechanisms has been implemented to demonstrate the evolution of collaborative learning. An enhancement in procedures directed toward deliberate responses and actions, coupled with the capability to improvise and adhere to a plan, is observed. This progress is substantiated by improved access to information, attributed to advancements in communication networks, the availability of both private and governmental data, and increased Internet accessibility. The advancements in this dimension can be attributed to the historical occurrences of natural disasters over time. Integrating the indigenous perspective into water resource conservation practices poses a challenge, yet it is essential to establish a meaningful alignment between internal and external institutions for more effective outcomes.

Participants acknowledge the existence of leaders at the global level. Specifically, local leaders have assumed various responsibilities over time and, according to the interviewees, there has been a constant absence of changes in leadership dynamics, especially internally. They are able to interact collaboratively and profitably with external institutions. Leaders encourage community members to develop long-term projects, generate entrepreneurship, and stimulate internal and external collaboration. Leadership is a positive aspect that has not undergone significant changes, though reformist leaders have emerged recently in water management. However, the indigenous Diaguita community has not had a systematic dissemination of its ancestral practices.

In general, the adaptive capacity of internal institutions (community-based organizations) has decreased mainly due to financial scarcity, since external institutions (e.g. government) do not provide funds and internal institutions cannot generate resources. Furthermore, human resources are inadequate for undertaking a variety of activities and carrying out procedures, and external institutions do not have the staff to respond to requests. Concerning resources associated with authority, there is a limited level of advancement, primarily attributed to a lack of credibility or trust in the execution of power, particularly directed at external institutions such as the central government. This insufficient dissemination seems to be driven by the distrust prevalent in the case of Chile regarding public–political institutions.

In this dimension of analysis, there are no changes with respect to the previous period. In the current period, doubts persist about the exercise of governance. One aspect of relevance is linked to the fact that permanent access to information (websites), together with the possibility of having access to data, has facilitated the internal questioning of procedures (accountability mechanisms and scarce technical support). In the community, there is a deep questioning of the government and politicians (e.g., senators, deputies, mayors), and in addition, there is a perceived lack of public policy on important issues such as water resources. This is linked to the fact that there are short-term plans that change with each government (president and ministers).

There are changes compared to the previous period (2004–2007 vs. 2018–2019). In the current period, there is an increase in social cohesion, in response to the intensification and visibility of the effects of climate change, showing uncertainty in internal institutions (e.g., rainfall deficiency). However, concerns persist about the effectiveness of governance and the fact that the measures applied are not manifested internally (e.g., plans to deal with drought). Continuous access to information, along with the ability to obtain data, has empowered internal institutions to examine specific procedures, leading to the perception that institutional rules lack equity.

In the context of Chilean reality, motivation is a key factor in increasing adaptive capacity. The motivation to conserve natural resources is a positive aspect of the community due to the need to conserve water resources. The motivation to adapt to changes in the community is based on the fact that the inhabitants understand that they can survive and continue to develop as long as they are able to adapt to external and internal changes. The integration of indigenous worldviews is still in its early stages, and incorporating ancestral water and agricultural conservation practices is crucial.

This study showed differences in institutional adaptive capacity between the two periods and suggests that the adaptive capacity would have improved (increased) generally over time. During the first period, room for autonomous change, fair governance, and social capital showed a low (negative) level. During the second period, the adaptive capacity reached a high (positive) level, but fair governance and resources showed a low level. The primary shifts observed in both periods revolve around the social capital and room for autonomous change dimensions. In the content analysis, the social capital dimension came to the forefront, encompassing subdimensions such as cohesion and participation. In addition, the motivation dimension emerged, featuring subdimensions like adaptation to changes and conservation of natural resources.

The improvement or increase in adaptive capacity is mainly attributed to the growing visibility of the consequences of climate change in the media and the importance of the political evolution toward democracy and the materialization of these advances. Several public policies, laws, and instruments at the national and regional level have recently been enforced – the Framework Law on Climate Change, Chile's Long Term Climate Strategy (Ministerio del Medio Ambiente, 2021), and the Drought Plan (Gobierno de Chile, 2021). In the Coquimbo Region, the Decree declaring the region a Shortage Zone (BCN, 2022b), the Water Emergency Plan 2019–2021 (GORE, 2019), and local initiatives for adaptation to climate change and water scarcity (Gutiérrez, 2022) were recently issued. Although rainfall has recently been generated in the area (Cooperativa, 2024), this is insufficient to put an end to the ‘mega drought’ (Armaza, 2022; Diario el Día, 2024a, 2024b) due to the worrisome water situation in the region and its social and economic impacts (Diario el Día, 2023). Policy and legal changes have been envisaged in relation to climate change and water resources, and increasing the adaptive capacity of communities to create a ‘water culture’ is necessary to establishing a rational, conscious, and efficient use of water independent of climate variability; furthermore, it is essential to create educational initiatives that have a long-term impact (Vargas-Payera et al., 2023); examples of school initiatives linked to the conservation of water resources hìdricos are MICA (Mapa Interactivo del Cambio Climático https://cidstem.cl/kitmica/); Programa STEAM HIDRO LAB (https://somosagua.cl/programa-steam-hidro-lab/); AQUA (https://ciencia-ciudadana.es/proyecto-cc/aqua/); and El agua de tu territorio (https://elaguadetuterritorio.cedeus.cl/material-pedagogico/).

At this point, several institutions have a fundamental role in promoting long-term conservation initiatives, enhancing the current monitoring network and the public control of water use to secure the water access for inhabitants and productive activities (Muñoz et al., 2020), and implementing greywater treatment systems in rural areas to generate a decrease in the demand for drinking water (Rodríguez et al., 2020). Finally, it is essential to provide a legal framework that considers water as a ‘common good’, thereby safeguarding its access to human consumption as included in the proposed New Constitution for Chile that was rejected in a 2022 plebiscite (Torres-Salinas & Alvez Marin, 2023); this situation continues to be a matter of interest, as the legal status of ‘water’ as a human right is reinforced (Celume Byrne, 2022).

In Diaguitas, tensions arise between internal (community) and external (governmental) institutions due to differing perspectives on natural resource conservation. There's a prevailing notion that the efforts by external institutions are perceived as ‘insufficient or deficient’, overly centralized and feeling of distrust (Izquierdo, 2023). Despite these tensions with the government, there is a noticeable shift toward a mindset that emphasizes the importance of resource conservation. This is relevant as recent research has highlighted the role of public institutions in building resilience to climate change (Khan et al., 2020). The core concern revolves around water resources, presenting a management and conservation complexity attributed to diverse structural elements (Urquiza & Billi, 2020; Limarí River basin). The pivotal role is played by the regulatory framework established in the Water Code (Delorit et al., 2019), which operates on a free-market economic foundation, thereby fostering what is commonly referred to as a ‘water market’ (Budds, 2020); it is expressed that the dynamics of the ‘market’ is based on interactions between buyers and sellers of water use rights (WUA), from the perspective that water is an economic good of the public (BCN, 2018). From this perspective, distribution has been seen in the study basin as an instrumentalization of the right to buy or sell water (Artero, 2021). This situation contrasts with the indigenous cosmovision of water resource management that is centered on nonmarket codes and understood as a community good (Calderón et al., 2016). This is exemplified in the legal dispute in favor of the protection of mountain glaciers between Diaguitas communities against the Pascua Lama Mining Company in the Atacama Region (Valenzano, 2021). The Diaguita culture is currently undergoing an asset valuation process in the area (El Ovallino, 2022) that is based on an ‘ethnic self-recognition’ by its descendants, a process that has been linked to the development of a strengthening of identity. The Diaguita culture has had a late political–public visibility by the Chilean state as have other ethnic groups in the north of the country (Gundermann, 2018). This opportunity for revitalization and cultural dissemination is in its infancy, and it is necessary to rescue and implement ancestral traditions that help to better understand their connection to the territory as a way of mitigating and adapting to climate change and other extreme events.

An important finding of the study is linked to the subdimension of ‘risk perception’, which is important in light of the natural disasters that have occurred in Chile (Herranz, 2019) and the high sensitivity of the rural communities to these disasters from physical, economic, and social perspectives. The ‘social capital’ dimension allows increasing adaptive capacity that has been widely researched and established as a key determinant in climate change adaptation (Fletcher et al., 2020). This connection is tied to the subdimensions of ‘social cohesion and participation,’ fostering opportunities for collaborative management of natural resources and establishing community mechanisms for adaptation and resilience to climate change. Initiatives in this direction could be linked to facilitating social organization with the goal of preserving the heritage and history of the Diaguita community from its early days as expressed through its cultural and social manifestations (e.g., the generation of initiatives related to indigenous tourism, representation of their ways of life, the development of tours, and innovation in agricultural practices). In the case of water management, a highly valued aspect is Rural Drinking Water Association in Diaguitas, a community water governance model that is conceived as a common resource (Duarte Vera et al., 2022). The additional aggregated dimension of ‘motivation’ and the subdimensions of ‘conservation of natural resources’ and ‘adaptation to changes’ require further research. Particularly important is research on social trends related to motivation for responsible use of natural resources with the aim of understanding the main motivations to achieve ‘collective motivation’ (van Zomeren et al., 2019). The dimensions proposed in the article (motivation) represent a linkage with psychological variables that can influence the development of adaptive capacity, representing an extension of what was proposed by Grothmann et al. (2013) in the previous work; however, there is a broad field of study yet to be discovered, especially in terms of the psychological impacts of climate change on the population (to mention one example). Important to note is the self-identification of one-third of the participants in both phases of the study as belonging to the indigenous Diaguita people, tend to place a higher value on the conservation of water resources.

Future research should explore the emerging dimensions of this comparative research pertaining to the concepts of ‘motivation’ and ‘social capital’, from an interdisciplinary perspective. Also needed is an analysis of the adaptive capacity of external and internal institutions separately and complemented with surveys and other instruments, studies of similar experiences in other rural communities, and comparative analyses of different locations; added to the above is the important usefulness of adopting transdisciplinary approaches in the evaluation of adaptation measures (Lillo-Ortega et al., 2019). This study could be linked to the vulnerability of rural communities in relation to access to water (Vivanco Castillo et al., 2024), given the links generated between vulnerability and adaptation in contexts of change and imbalance between supply and demand.

Regarding methodological limitations, the present study tried to interview the same people in two time periods; however, this was not always possible, which has implications for the interpretation of the results. In this area, respondents may become more aware of climate issues in the second participation, due to increasing impacts, derived from phenomena of changing perceptions over time (e.g., Lee et al., 2020; for a review on changes in perception with the increasing age), along with the methodological advantages and disadvantages of using different information production techniques in each period (interviews versus focus groups). Despite this, the study sought to use mechanisms of triangulation of qualitative strategies, through the implementation of information collection techniques (documentary analysis in the press media, legislative documents, etc.) (Flick, 2018) and triangulation of researchers (Flick, 2015). Specifically, in terms of the analysis framework used (ACW), it helps to assess whether institutions facilitate or hinder institutional change (Gupta et al., 2016); however, for the local reality, in attention to the 22 subdimensions of the model, difficulties were expressed in its operationalization and application in the context of a rural community (e.g., double loop learning); similarly, being a score by ranges (e.g., low), a qualitative approach would be insufficient to perform a qualitative analysis. In the same way, since it is a score by ranges (e.g., low), a qualitative approach would be insufficient to carry out an in-depth analysis, being necessary to complement it with quantitative instruments. From this experience, the need to include dimensions linked to variables of a psychological (e.g., motivation) and social (e.g., cohesion) nature emerges, which would allow us to broaden the construct of adaptive capacity. Finally, notable limitations are complex networks and extensive flow of interactions between internal and external institutions, posing challenges in evaluating institutional adaptive capacity.

This study evaluated institutional adaptive capacity at two different moments in time, concluding modifications in adaptive capacity to climate change in the Diaguitas community, whose worldview is centered on its indigenous roots, its sense of place and its commitment to care for the natural environment. This adaptive capacity might be attributed in part to a series of public initiatives (generation of plans and programs, laws, incentive instruments, etc.) and private initiatives (modification in productive practices, social investment, and entrepreneurial projects) as well as the dissemination and discussion of the consequences of climate change and water scarcity – phenomena that greatly impact human groups dependent on water resources. Future initiatives by academic institutions in partnership with private actors might ‘bridge the gap’ and move toward socio-environmental sustainability of rural communities.

Thus, according to the ACW, the Diaguitas Community presents important challenges to achieving adaptation processes in the face of climate change, especially in dimensions such as fair governance and resources. This invites reflection on the growing need to build effective bridges between external and internal institutions. On the other hand, the new dimensions that emerge – social capital and motivation–represent a theoretical and methodological ‘evolution’ of the adaptation wheel, having a potential to be inserted as an axis of development applicable to the different rural communities and to the different factors involved in adaptation and resilience.

Based on this and as a way to provide inputs for policymakers, we provide the following:

• (i) Develop institutional and community adaptation plans focused on ACW dimensions.

• (ii) Carry out practical actions (intervention) in the communities/institutions that need to develop adaptation mechanisms in the face of climate or natural events.

• (iii) Link the social capital dimension with community development actions and the motivation dimension with school initiatives.

• (iv) Generate quantitative instruments (e.g., surveys; scales of appreciation) based on ACW, to develop institutional and community diagnostics.

Data cannot be made publicly available; readers should contact the corresponding author for details.

The authors declare there is no conflict.