Challenges and solutions in water management: a comprehensive study of Yemen's water policies and practices

Management of water resources is a major challenge in many developing nations. Issues such as weak governance, conflict of interests, and narrow awareness of effective management tools are common factors that complicate water management across the developing world (Barbosa et al., 2016). Yemen experiences extreme water scarcity, exacerbated by rapid population growth and weak national authority control (Shevah, 2019). In urban areas, excessive groundwater extraction has led to the depletion of many aquifers, forcing water institutions to secure water from extremely deep aquifers. This practice substantially increases both the drilling expenses and the energy required to pump water from such depths (Al-Zubari, 2017; Sherif et al., 2023). Moreover, many wells operate outside government authority. Influential people and wealthy farmers are drilling many private wells for domestic and irrigation purposes, both in open areas and within residential yards and small fields. This has led to a rapid decline in groundwater levels, with some areas reaching depths greater than 500 m (Salameh et al., 2021). Water quality is another critical issue facing water management policy. Many operated wells have shown high microbial content and increased salt concentrations, resulting in severe health issues like cholera (Al-Gheethi et al., 2018).

The wastewater infrastructure is also inadequate, with most homes not connected to the sewage system. In Sana'a, for instance, only 30% of houses are connected to the sewerage network that conveys sewage to the treatment plant (SWWTP) (GIZ, 2022). Moreover, the SWWTP has a limited capacity to receive the high load of the daily incoming wastewater. Consequently, a significant amount of untreated or minimally treated wastewater is often released into the environment with no additional control. In the other Yemeni cities, the situation of the wastewater network is often worse. The few existing treatment plants are frequently out of service, primarily due to a lack of maintenance (GIZ, 2022). Nevertheless, downstream farmers are reusing the effluent of the treatment plants to irrigate various vegetables, fruit trees, annual crops, and fodder, without following adequate wastewater irrigation practices. A local study suggests some practices like the indispensable waiting time required between the last irrigation and harvesting of crops irrigated with wastewater as a practical method to reduce pathogen contents and minimize environmental impact (Alfalahi et al., 2023).

Further, the spatial distribution of Yemen's population is uneven, with over 75% of the population residing in the northwestern region. The majority of Yemenis live in rural areas, with more than 65% of the population living in villages (Zeug & Eckert, 2010). This entails different water supply strategies in rural areas compared to urban centers. In the best scenarios, rural areas have wells, water collection storage, and a network that supplies homes with water every 7–10 days. Usually, water collection tanks are established at the top points or high mountains to utilize gravitational force for water distribution to the connected homes. Each household typically has a steel tank for storing water for some days, while there is no sewage system in rural areas. Because of poor hygiene practices, water-borne diseases such as malaria, schistosomiasis, and salmonella, particularly among children, are frequently reported. It is also common for residents in villages to drink from traditional rainwater ponds and use this source for ablution and washing domestic animals (Aklan et al., 2024).

For irrigation, farmers depend on direct-flood irrigation during or after heavy rainfall events. Across the region, traditional ponds are widely built to harvest rainwater for supplementary irrigation or domestic use, particularly during drought times. This irrigation system is usually managed by local customs and ancient traditions, which allocate water among farmers based on the field's location and the nature of the upper catchment area. Although this tradition of water distribution is still widely applied today, the irrigation regime in Yemen has changed dramatically since the 1970s due to groundwater exploration (Varisco, 2019). In flat areas and open fields near urban centers, groundwater has become the main source of irrigation. Unfortunately, the extensive dependence on groundwater has resulted in the depletion of many aquifers. At the same time, the over-abstraction of the groundwater is accompanied by a total absence of awareness about depletion potential and misperception of water rights by the local people, influenced by existing traditions of water use (Robins & Fergusson, 2014). Often, certain traditions and perceptions regarding water usage present a significant challenge to the government's efforts to enforce water laws and effectively manage the limited water resources, especially due to the government's weak authority in rural areas. Moreover, Yemen's tribal system adds another dimension of complexity, requiring solutions that go beyond standard governmental policies and regulations. Tribal armed communities may resist government regulations on natural resource utilization within their territories, including water resources. The tribes are ruled by traditional and local customs. For instance, disputes among tribe members are often solved by the tribal leaders Al Shaieq or Al Aqel, who are respected for their wisdom and authority.

Over time, Yemenis have developed their own informal rules for surface water distribution, but there are no established regulations for groundwater extraction and water use rights (van Steenbergen et al., 2015). For more than 30 years, the government, through its responsible authorities, has made great efforts to manage underground water as a high-priority element of the national water strategy, with the main aim of preserving this source for only drinking purposes. However, the efforts of the government have not succeeded because many farmers rely on groundwater for irrigation. At the same time, the farmers still follow ancient irrigation methods, such as spate irrigation, which consume a significant quantity of groundwater to irrigate cash crops like Qat. The farmers have been using groundwater long before water ownership regulations were established, leading to over-abstraction and depletion of many aquifers. Thus, conflicts and tensions over water resources have been occasionally reported because of the excessive use of water by certain farmers and water merchants. There have also been instances of authority misuse by Al Shaieq himself, who owns a groundwater well for drinking and irrigation while simultaneously exercising his power and rights over the village's drinking water well.

This study aims to provide a comprehensive case study of the water management crisis in this arid country. It presents a deep analysis of the components of the crisis and challenges facing the implementation of water policies. The study further addresses practical solutions to improve water management in Yemen. At the regional and local-scale level, there is a scientific gap in studies covering water use policies. Therefore, the current study provides valuable insights to Yemeni researchers and decision-makers to effectively manage water resources. At the global level, similar cases in some other developing countries will benefit from the discussion presented in this research.

Between April and June 2023, a social study and public discussion were conducted in five villages and three urban centers across the Sana‘a, Al Mahwit, and Taiz governorates. The study areas represent densely populated regions, with villages having populations exceeding 4,000 people and urban centers with over 10,000 residents. These areas were selected due to their high population density compared to other regions in Yemen, which are experiencing significant water depletion and rapid declines in groundwater levels. Additionally, agriculture is the primary occupation for many residents, with flood irrigation being the prevalent practice that consumes a substantial portion of available water resources. The region also has a rich tradition of rainwater harvesting, which has unfortunately been neglected in recent times.

The study gathered over 640 complete questionnaires, supplemented by several group and individual meetings. A combination of closed-ended, open-ended, demographic, and semantic differential questions was employed to gather public opinion on government water policies. Separate focus groups were held with women and teenage girls to ensure their perspectives were captured. However, not everyone could participate in the questionnaire due to high illiteracy rates.

Local council representatives and tribal leaders actively participated in the discussions. In addition, structured interviews were conducted with experts and decision-makers from various local agencies in Sana'a, including the Ministry of Water and Environment (MWE), the Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation (MAI), and the National Water Resources Authority (NWRA). In addition to surveys, the study included site visits to agricultural fields and areas experiencing water depletion and groundwater over-abstraction, with a primary focus on understanding local traditions that govern water distribution.

In Yemen, there are no permanent rivers, except during occasional heavy rains that create temporary base flow in Wadis like Bana, Surdod, and Siham for limited seasonal periods. For most of the year, these Wadis either remain dry or exhibit intermittent flows. Surface water rights are governed by longstanding traditions, primarily focusing on utilizing runoff and rainwater captured by traditional storage systems for agricultural irrigation. The catchment area above the agricultural lands plays a major role in determining water distribution among farmers. Established customs define the sharing of rainwater channels from the catchment, locally known as ‘Al Marhq,’ even before the water reaches the main farms. Preserving these customs is dominant, as any structures or impediments that hinder water flow to fields are strictly prohibited. Their violation often leads to bloody conflicts within the farmer communities. In terraced farming systems, water that overflows from upper terraces to lower ones has encouraged farmers to cultivate crops with higher water needs in the upper terraces. However, differences in planting types may arise among families owning the upper and lower terraces.

In flat or semi-flat areas where multiple fields share rainwater channels, equitable water distribution is regulated through the construction of stone divides at the same level outside each field. The utilization of temporary baseflow or groundwater for irrigation follows a schedule-based approach, often relating to farm size or rotational agreements among villages. In addition, surface water rights include springs and sulfate hot springs, the latter valued for medicinal and, in certain regions, touristic purposes. Mismanagement and the absence of regulations regulating hot water use have led to the exhaustion of sulfur water sources, highlighting the urgent need for effective governance and sustainable water management practices. Most of Yemen is arid or hyper-arid areas. The current water availability per capita of the population is about 85 m³ annually, which is one-tenth of the regional average and a hundredth of the worldwide average (Ward, 2014). Availability is projected to continue to decrease sharply with the rapid population growth (Table 1). While there is considerable seasonal spate flow in Wadis, the recharge rate of groundwater remains estimated due to the absence of climate and hydrological stations.

Many hand and bore wells are dug in shallow aquifers to extract sub-surface water for domestic and drinking use. Typically, these wells are dug manually by individual farmers or community groups, and the wells are often situated in or near wadi beds at depths not exceeding 50 m. Every so often, the shallow wells are at risk of destruction caused by flooding or sediment filling after heavy rainfall. The rights to utilize water from these wells are typically reserved for those who contributed to the construction of the well. While certain local customs suggest maintaining distances between the shallow wells, these local guidelines lack a scientific basis and are based upon factors related to the well owner's property. Moreover, shallow wells are prone to contamination and can be dangerous because of ineffective measures for protection and safety. In recent years and due to the decline in groundwater levels, some people have turned these wells into cesspools, posing significant risks of groundwater pollution. Besides, no national regulations exist about the construction requirements of these wells or the rights of water use. As it appears, the shallow wells are under the control of local communities and do not significantly affect the country's groundwater management policy.

The exploitation of groundwater in Yemen began in the 1970s with the drilling of the first tube well in the capital city, Sana'a. Following this initial development, the extraction of deep groundwater expanded significantly without adequate government monitoring and a lack of a legal framework to regulate the resource. In general, drilling of water wells is conducted by private sector companies that contract with the government. In the past, to facilitate water exploitation, the Yemeni government initiated a package of privileges and incentives for drilling companies, including taxes and customs exemptions for imported rig equipment and spare parts.

This policy has driven the attention of various companies to work on water drilling projects. According to the National Water Resources General Authority (NWRA), there are currently more than 700 drilling rigs in Yemen compared to only 100 in India (Lichtenthaeler, 2010). The rigs move easily across the governorates and districts without any enforced regulations, resulting in indiscriminate and illegal drilling of an unknown number of wells. The MWE considers controlling illegal drilling to be the most difficult task for the national water policy (Al-Ghorbany, 2014). Therefore, a great reformation of the water policy has been made to establish a practical solution to this problem. The MWE initiated a series of reformations that aim at regulating groundwater extraction and rationalizing water use.

At first, the MWE carried out massive fieldwork across the country to count the number of operating and out-of-service wells. Subsequently, attempts were made to control illegal drilling, including the mandatory registration of drilling rigs and the establishment of qualification standards for companies engaged in drilling activities. The qualified companies must obtain a certificate from the MWE to perform drilling. Additionally, drilling is not permitted before receiving permission from the NWRA based on a hydrogeological investigation study. Overall, priority of drilling was given to wells intended for drinking water supply, particularly in communities lacking alternative water sources or where existing sources are not suitable for human consumption. Moreover, the MWE has consistently declared the need for license plates of the drilling rigs to facilitate monitoring and following up the rigs' movement across the country. In addition, the MWE has imposed a serious restriction on drilling planned for irrigation purposes to conserve the limited groundwater.

Some of these measures have created a kind of conflict with the MAI as well as with multiple agricultural associations. To address the policy interactions with MAI, the MWE initiated a more detailed policy in 2004 that incorporated the main stakeholders in water management strategy and built more collaborative partnerships with other parties and local authorities such as tax and customs agencies, port and airport authorities, the Ministry of Interior Affairs, and Ministry of Legal Affairs.

Among the proposed interventions is the construction of irrigation dams to reduce dependency on groundwater in the irrigation sector. Moreover, the integration of drip irrigation and the expansion of greenhouse technologies in agriculture were discussed with the MAI, even though this approach remains expensive and has not gained acceptance among local farmers, particularly due to the absence of active agriculture associations and the small agricultural holdings. Despite all these efforts to protect groundwater resources, the situation of groundwater management has slightly improved. Most of the stakeholders involved were not as actively engaged as the MWE. Moreover, local issues related to security, political unrest, and other governmental commitments have diverted attention from national water policies. As a result, the water issue has not been a top priority in government projects. Corruption and influence of tribal leaders (Al Shaiques) and lobbying by certain parliament members and top government officials have also hindered the legalization of drilling activities.

Management of irrigation water is strongly connected to groundwater management and utilization of rainwater. In general, irrigation traditional practices have remained largely unchanged over time, with reliance on rain-fed agriculture supplemented by the unregulated use of wastewater in urban areas and groundwater in rural regions (Marchant et al., 2018). Although the government has issued a set of initiatives on agricultural water management, spate irrigation is the predominant irrigation regime. The application of drip and sprinkler irrigation, as well as the adoption of plastic greenhouse technology, is still in its early stages (Atroosh & Moustafa, 2011). The implementation of these technologies has only been driven by individual farmers who recognize their benefits. In addition, market demand and local needs predominantly determine crop selection and cultivation practices, with little consideration given to planting drought-resistant or low water-demand crops. Despite the increasing awareness of groundwater scarcity, many farmers have yet to adopt water-saving practices, such as installing irrigation meters to monitor water use. Also, payment for irrigation of water typically follows traditional norms based on the time needed to fill a field with water.

Likewise, the widespread cultivation of Qat trees in the highland and middle plateau regions and the planting of high water-demand crops in the lowlands and Wadis such as bananas significantly contribute to groundwater depletion. To improve water savings in agriculture, several governmental reports suggest more efficient use of irrigation water, such as using conduit pipes to convey water directly from wells to agricultural fields. However, many farmers are not employing this method, and other traditional practices that could improve irrigation efficiency, such as increased shading and soil mulching with manure, have diminished due to the decline in livestock. Furthermore, the use of wastewater for irrigation remains risky due to poor water quality.

Thus, supplementary irrigation using harvested rainwater emerges as the most sustainable option in many areas of Yemen. This approach would conserve the limited groundwater resources and sustain agriculture. Harvesting of rainwater will also recharge the underground water and improve soil moisture content, providing an additional water source for domestic and washing purposes.

The location of the water entrance inlet on a farm plays a crucial role in water distribution and the establishment of an effective irrigation system. In Yemen, most agricultural fields are small due to the area's rugged terrain, and the fields become even smaller when divided among the large family members. Small agricultural terraces are widely observed in the Highlands, Mid-Plateau, and the Western Plateau region. This unique system, which dates back over 3,000 years (Vogel, 1987), was created to take advantage of the accumulated silts and clay deposits following rainfall events, transforming this fertile soil into arable lands, while the construction of more flat circular terraces was mostly constrained by the complex topography of these regions.

Dividing the field between two or three farmers often involves simple markings carved into the field walls or placement of a small stone as a marker along the soil boundaries. When one farmer proposes, for example, integrating drip irrigation or establishing greenhouse farms, consultation would be necessary with the other farmers. In areas with terraces, rainwater irrigates the upper terraces first and then flows down to the lower terraces. The overflow is smoothly managed by the low field boundaries, which often do not exceed a height of 30 cm. While this traditional method of irrigation may not be widely welcomed by all farmers, its longstanding practice makes it a custom that the government cannot interfere with.

In flat fields, water distribution is governed by the primary water inlet that determines which parts of the farm receive water first. During significant rainfall events, most fields receive an adequate amount of water for crop growth. However, when rain is short, the parts of the field that are close to the water inlet will receive most of the available water. In general, there are no rules or regulations that govern water use inside the farm, except for some efforts by the government to establish water user groups (WUGs) under the Integral Water Resources Management (IWRM) approach. The government has established some WUGs from the local communities in some critical water basins (e.g., Sana'a basin) to promote the efficient use of irrigation water through the adoption of more efficient irrigation techniques. However, these initiatives were periodic and lacked a follow-up assessment of their effectiveness and outcomes, which could be shared with other regions. It is expected that some WUGs will remain active in water management only if the farmers find a real return in applying the tools of water management.

The collection of wastewater is a new concept in Yemen and has not been a priority for successive governments. In Sana'a city, the construction of the wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) in 1994 was primarily driven by the need to end the bad odor emanating from open storage near Sana'a airport. Afterwards, simple regulations on wastewater management were established and integrated into governmental strategies. Overall, the treatment process is considered primary treatment, while the plants' outputs (sludges and effluents) are not economically utilized. The sludge is often collected in large earthen storage for drying under direct sunlight, with no further treatment or export for additional use. However, some local farmers reuse the sludge for soil fertilization, especially with the absence of strict regulations preventing this practice. On the governmental side, the storage is consistently full and needs regular emptying, allowing farmers to collect and reuse the dried sludge in agriculture.

Further, both treated and untreated wastewater effluents flow downstream at about ≥10 km from the SWWTP. The effluent is reused in irrigation without effective controls or mandatory safeguards for wastewater reuse. Across the country, multiple local studies that examined the quality of wastewater have found that all WWTPs perform poorly in reducing specific physicochemical parameters. While the plants are effective in lowering total coliforms and fecal coliforms, they demonstrate little to no reduction in the most harmful trace elements after treatment.

The national water management plan suggests enhancing the capacity of the existing WWTPs and optimizing treatment outputs. The policy proposes improvements to wastewater networks and manholes, along with the enforcement of serious measures and fines on individuals who may impede treatment performance by opening wastewater manholes during flooding or illegally disposing of industrial and mobile workshop waste into wastewater networks.

Unfortunately, the implementation of the wastewater management plan is restricted by budget constraints, high maintenance costs, weak governance, inadequate monitoring tools, and lack of cooperation among relevant agencies. Some individuals even argue that the construction of WWTPs has resulted in severe environmental damage and has extremely affected public health by providing the local farmers with uncontrolled access to water and a free source of fertilizers.

The size of water use in industry remains largely unclear in Yemen. Certain vital industries, such as oil and gas, are not easily accessible to the government staff due to top-level restrictions aimed at encouraging foreign investment (Al-Eryani, 2020). In addition, small- and mid-size projects are not extensively investigated regarding the exact water use. When some industries register with the Investment Authority or the Ministry of Trade and Industry, the owner may provide a general idea about water use in the facility, but no precise details about water use throughout the entire production chain are provided. This makes the calculation of water consumption by these industries a real challenge. Furthermore, the rapid growth of the food industry and mineral water bottling plants has exacerbated groundwater depletion. Besides, the sugar industry, which is currently growing, consumes huge quantities of fresh water during sugar cane processing. The sugar industry requires freshwater for good-quality sugar production. For example, the AL-Saeedah sugar plant, which is in the coastal plain area, uses high amounts of water. The plant was supposed to secure its water needs from the desalinated seawater and reuse it in its production process and for sugar cane pre-cleaning. Instead, the plant depends on underground water, which may cause seawater intrusion shortly.

Further, many small-scale water disinfection facilities (locally known as Kuthar plants) that apply chlorine to the drinking water are operating without adequate supervision from the government. Similarly, car wash workshops, medical manufacturing plants, swimming pools, and tourism-related activities, which consume and use a huge quantity of fresh water, are often not incorporated into the national water strategies. Other industries like mineral re-melting, glass manufacturing, and plastic pipe processing, which require significant amounts of water at various temperatures, have not been intensively assessed for actual water use. The control of industrial water use is hindered by the conflict of interest between the MWE and the other agencies responsible for inviting investments and issuing industry permissions. Furthermore, numerous small industries are operating without registration with the relevant government agencies.

Given the scarcity of water resources across the country, people, particularly in rural areas, prioritize water availability over water quality. Meanwhile, government laboratories including those under the MWE, the Standardization and Quality Control Authority, the Ministry of Health, and the MAI primarily focus on assessing basic water parameters such as physicochemical elements and some microbial content. However, the public labs face significant challenges due to insufficient funding and outdated equipment, with only basic reagents and analysis solutions typically available. Consequently, private laboratories have massively emerged to provide more accurate analysis and offer inclusive examinations related to public health.

The private sector plays a significant role in distributing drinking water through tankers and operating numerous small-scale drinking water treatment facilities across most Yemeni cities. These facilities primarily use chlorine to control and minimize potential contamination that may occur at the water source or during the transportation of water. However, the quality of water after treatment at most plants remains uncertain. There have been several complaints about issues such as excessive chlorine dosage and impurities found in bottled water. Often, monitoring of these plants is set within the responsibility of the environmental health and municipal departments in the local governorates, with occasional inspections conducted by the NWRA.

Furthermore, there are no national standards for irrigation water quality or its suitability for use. Examination and monitoring of water quality, whether for groundwater or wastewater effluents, are not conducted regularly. Reports across the country indicate increased salt concentrations in groundwater wells due to low recharge rates, high evapotranspiration, and salts originating from geological formations of the aquifers. This high salinity adversely affects plant growth and deteriorates soil fertility, particularly in poorly drained fields. Furthermore, the oil industry has contributed to groundwater pollution during the drilling and production stages. The extraction of oil and natural gas frequently results in water being produced as a byproduct. This water is a complex chemical compound characterized by high salt content mixed with hydrocarbons. Most companies separate this water from the crude oil before exporting, and the separated water may either be returned to the oil aquifer to maintain pressure or stored in open earth storage. Both actions can lead to serious contamination and health problems. Some reports from regions like the Hadhramaut governorate attribute the rise in cancer cases among residents living near oil companies to groundwater contamination caused by the oil industry. This indicates that monitoring systems for water quality require significant enhancement in both existing legislation and the technical resources of local authorities.

Most water wells are operated using diesel motors. When the government provides a well, the motor is typically supplied by either the MWE through the Rural Water Supply Projects Authority (GARWSP) or the MAI. MWE-funded projects generally involve a geological investigation prior to drilling. This report ensures the accurate identification of the productive aquifer and facilitates the calculation of drilling costs. In parallel, a detailed technical study is conducted, including surveying work to outline locations and dimensions of project components, such as tanks and networks. The technical study additionally recommends the appropriate water pump based on factors such as water depth and the suggested pumping rate outlined in the geological report. Also, social gatherings are typically held to nominate or elect members of the water project committee, which will oversee the project throughout its lifespan (15–40 years). During the operational period, the community bears responsibility for the operation costs and maintenance, with exceptional government assistance provided in certain cases, such as when the water table drops sharply beyond the pump's reach.

However, the simplicity of delivering water projects to communities with limited knowledge of water management has failed in many vicinities. Common issues include setting low water prices, mismanaging project returns, overexploiting water for other purposes such as irrigation, drilling private agricultural wells near the drinking water primary project, and neglecting sustainable water withdrawal based on aquifer properties and storage capacity. Conversely, there are instances of successful projects. However, these achievements remain localized and are not widely disseminated at the governorate or district level.

Implementing water policies in third-world countries presents numerous challenges. Factors such as rapid population growth, limited budgets, conflict of interests, complex topographies, rainfall fluctuations, low groundwater recharge rates, and inadequate monitoring tools pose significant obstacles to national policies. According to the World Water Assessment Program (WWAP), around 2.2 billion people still live without access to safely managed drinking water services and 3.5 billion lack access to safe sanitation, contributing to deteriorating water quality and inadequate wastewater disposal, which adversely affects public health (UNESCO, 2024). The World Bank highlights water accessibility as a critical issue for achieving the development goals. Over the past 20 years, the number of people lacking safe drinking water and basic sanitation has increased rapidly. Resulting infectious diseases contribute to at least 1.4 million annual deaths and 50% of global malnutrition. Furthermore, the water crisis is amplified by climate change impacts, including more frequent flooding and droughts (Zhang & Borja-Vega, 2024).

The Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region faces the most severe water scarcity globally, with only 1.4% of the world's renewable fresh water available. High water demand resulting from rapid population growth, widespread poverty, and agricultural expansion exacerbates the water crisis of the region (Adun et al., 2022). In Yemen, per capita water availability is as low as 85 m³/year, creating an annual water gap that ranks Yemen as the most water-poor country in the MENA. Water scarcity in Yemen is further associated with an absence of regulations, particularly on rights of groundwater use and water distribution, which complicates water management in the country (Das, 2020).

To address these challenges, institutional reforms have become essential. Also, water laws need to be enforced and integrated into other sector policies to comprehensively protect the limited water reserves. For instance, incentives for good water practices and imposing fines and penalties on those who violate water protection laws should be put into effect to improve water management. Decentralizing authority from the central government to local authorities, mainly in rural areas, is also important. Collaboration between water monitoring agencies can lower the great burden on the MWE and prevent groundwater depletion. Effective control of drilling rigs, in collaboration with the Ministry of Interior Affairs and local administrations, is a prerequisite to stop illegal drilling. Conflict of interest between agricultural development and groundwater conservation must be solved by prioritizing drinking water supply projects.

Promoting rainwater harvesting is indispensable for sustainable agriculture. Encouraging communities to build storage for collecting rainwater and utilizing it during droughts, while the local government may build medium and small dams, will offer an effective water source for irrigation purposes. In regions where groundwater use for irrigation cannot be avoided, monitoring wells and incorporation of water-efficient techniques like drip irrigation are crucial. Conducting detailed investigations into aquifer properties and recharge rates, as well as establishing climate and hydrological stations, will support the water management efforts.

Introducing drought-resistant crops while controlling water-high-demand crops like bananas and Qat is an effective measure to manage water in agriculture. Subsidizing farmers to cultivate less water-intensive crops, like Colombia's approach, with citrus fruits and coffee, can help to stop growing Qat (Nilsson & Marín, 2021; Vélez, 2022). Additionally, advanced wastewater treatment outputs can be reused for irrigation, provided that clear regulations and quality control measures are in place to protect public health.

Improving water runoff management, such as integrating drainage systems and constructing rainwater collection tanks, can maximize the benefits of seasonal runoff. The integration of the MWE and the MAI into one body is believed to support water management efforts. Specific regulations on water use by industry should be implemented to ensure efficient water use and prevent groundwater contamination, particularly in sectors like the oil industry. In general, implementing inclusive water management strategies entails effective monitoring tools and flexible mechanisms. Moreover, local governance and community engagement play a fundamental role in achieving sustainable water management. The role of local communities is endorsed to have a significant contribution to water management as reported by several studies and government technical reports (Taher, 2016; Morris-Iveson & Alderwish, 2018; Al-Saidi, 2020).

Developing countries face significant challenges in implementing their water resources action plans. Common difficulties include low available budgets, lack of water planning, limited awareness among both the public and decision-makers, and ineffective monitoring tools. Dry and semi-arid regions encounter similar issues in managing their limited water resources, primarily groundwater, due to factors such as low rainfall, absence of surface water resources, high evaporation rates, and population growth. Moreover, high poverty rates and weak governance contribute to the mismanagement of natural resources and hinder the implementation of national strategies that aim to improve water management. Climate change intensifies these challenges, especially under the predicted rise of temperature and rapid increase in population.

Studies and national reports highlight a substantial decrease in water availability per capita and a deterioration in water quality due to unplanned development and the failure of national plans to address water issues. Illegal groundwater drilling, inefficient water use in irrigation, and pollution caused by industrial activities are among the reasons for poor water management.

In Yemen, current policies have not aligned with the rapid deterioration of the limited water resources and have failed to achieve the minimum objective of controlling groundwater depletion. Rational water use and sustainability of water resources are not sufficiently addressed in many local strategies. Additionally, conflicts of interest among water management agencies have created a legal gap that profits the wealthy and minor influential groups. Moreover, involving the private sector in water mining and exploration without adequate governmental control has resulted in adverse implications and depletion of groundwater. These failures have consequences on women and girls who bear the burden of fetching water at the expense of their education and health.

The heavy reliance on conventional agriculture and lack of economic diversity and job opportunities outside agriculture have led to great pressure on water resources and created conflicts among local communities. Furthermore, working in agriculture was not accompanied by real efforts to find alternative water sources or implement effective water supply techniques. For example, the management of water demand is still weak and not properly recognized as an effective tool to manage the shortage of water resources, which necessitates collaborative efforts from the development sectors and the existing governmental action plans. Given the persistent political unrest and limited financial resources in Yemen, international support seems to be vital in future work to establish effective water management strategies.

Overall, implementing water policies will remain challenging for many countries. There is a permanent need to effectively incorporate local agencies and define clear monitoring tools for ease of water management implementation. Moreover, sustainable water management requires complete social, economic, and political transformations that create more economic opportunities and reduce dependency on limited water resources.

We would like to thank all Yemeni experts who contributed invaluable insights to this research. We are also grateful for the active participation of community members and local representatives from Al Mahwit, Sana'a, Hadhramaut, and Shabwah governorates. Special thanks go to the specialists from the MWE in Sana'a for granting us full access to any available data and information on the country's water management strategy.

This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

We declare that this manuscript is original, has not been published before, and is not currently being considered for publication elsewhere. Furthermore, the study has not been split up into several parts, and there is no/ violation against human rights or institutions due to the use, distribution, or publication of this work. Moreover, there are no conflicts of interest associated with this manuscript.

All relevant data are included in the paper or its Supplementary Information.

The authors declare there is no conflict.