Gender inequality in water supply management in rural communities in Brazil

Universal access to water was established as a human right in 2010 (UN General Assembly (2010); Machado et al. 2019a), but as in many other regions worldwide, rural communities in Brazil face water scarcity – inadequate or nonexistent water supplies. As a solution, some communities resort to water supplies managed by community associations. In this model, the population operates and manages the water supply system through residents' associations. The construction of stations and the provision of technical, institutional, and political assistance are delegated to external agents, such as city halls and state governments (Behnke et al. 2017; Hutchings et al. 2017). However, for rural Brazilians, water supply converges with populations' social and economic issues, making access to safe water an even more daunting challenge.

Historically, social roles in Brazil have been defined based on gender (Rosa et al. 2019a). This scenario also reflects the right to access water that meets the different needs of each gender. Therefore, public policies that consider women and girls' material and strategic needs (caring for the home, children, and personal hygiene during menstrual periods in schools and public spaces) are necessary to achieve equality. It is required to encourage local programs to improve women's health and physical, mental, and social well-being in the community (WHO 2015; Hennegan et al. 2021).

Water supply management in Brazil is very diverse. Systems can be small or large, managed by public or private companies, and established at regional, sub-regional, or even local levels (Machado et al. 2020, 2022). Despite the continental size and the different socio-economic and environmental realities of its mesoregions, the influence of patriarchy on guaranteeing women's right to water is a common factor in all Brazilian states. This study focused on rural communities where the management model implemented follows a regional planning approach, considering community associations as management units, as is the case in the states of Ceará and Espírito Santo.

The state of Ceará is located in the northeastern region of Brazil and is characterized by a hot tropical and semi-arid climate with long periods of drought (Ceará 2008). The local population's human development index (HDI) is classified as medium and composed mainly of women (PNUD 2012). However, the predominance of social roles influenced by patriarchal systems is evident (Fernandes & Londhe 2015). In this region, a robust community management model is implemented through the legal instrument – the integrated rural sanitation system of Ceará-SISAR.

The State of Espírito Santo has a subtropical climate at high altitude, with rainfall throughout the year. The State is made up of 74 municipalities, 52 of which have water supply services provided by Espírito Santo Sanitation Company (Cesan), a mixed capital company created in 1967. It provides drinking water to 93.2% of the inhabitants of the municipalities under its concession (Marcellos 2019). Currently, Cesan and Pró-Rural program implements a community management model in small and remote municipalities (between 50 and 1,500 inhabitants) where the management of water systems is not economically sustainable. This region is dependent on coffee cultivation and has a high HDI (Altmann 2012). This highlights the social, environmental, and economic aspects that are different from those in Ceará.

Analyzing the influence of social constructs in the two regions highlights that women's experiences transcend regional boundaries and socio-economic and environmental issues. Despite presenting itself as an alternative to the universalization of water access, water management is still influenced by unequal structures of gender, ethnicity, and regionalization (Empinotti 2010; Rosa et al. 2019a). The insufficient infrastructure for drinking water, combined with socially defined gender roles, creates a profile for women's vulnerabilities (Costa et al. 2015; Pommells et al. 2018). The effective participation of women in water management and supply decision-making can advance population health goals, increase access to and use of improved water sources, and can be considered a palliative measure to improve water security and target interventions in poor communities and regions (Boateng et al. 2013; Chew et al. 2019). Women's participation is of fundamental importance in contemplating women within their needs (Rosa et al. 2019b). However, the participation of women within these committees is small, and they generally occupy positions of lesser importance, face criticism, several challenges, and a need for more trust in the community. This prevents them from being in decision-making environments (Gutiérrez Villalpando et al. 2013). However, the patriarchal culture that determines the social roles of gender within rural communities also influences women's health and personal hygiene. One-third of married women in developing countries say they have little or no say in healthcare (UN Women 2019). This devaluation of women's well-being imposes economic vulnerability and prejudice against women during water scarcity. They are more affected during disasters such as floods, landslides, and pandemics (Alhassan & Kwakwa 2014; Johansson 2016; Zorzi et al. 2016; Miletto et al. 2017; Coffey et al. 2020).

There are few studies on women and community water management in Latin America, with implications for mobilization in the development of measures to strengthen equitable gender participation in water management (Machado et al. 2019b). Therefore, it is essential to conduct studies that discuss social and economic inequalities (Ray 2007; Façanha 2019). Therefore, this study aimed to analyze the influence of social roles on women's access and participation in rural water supply. It has selected two regions that present communities' regional management models, as is the case of the states of Ceará and Espírito Santo, Brazil. As they present different socio-economic and environmental conditions, it is also possible to assess the effect of regionalization on women's participation in water management. This study is innovative in that it brings to light the realities experienced by the rural population of the two study areas and highlights the interference of social constructions for women from the point of view of the target group, which allows us to discuss the issue in a more comprehensive way from the bottom up.

Although there is a historical relationship between women and water, given the gender division of tasks in rural communities, there has been a gradual internationalization of the effective recognition of their importance in the integrated management of water resources (Nogueira 2009). As water and the environment were scrutinized, the gender perspective was introduced to the water issue, coexisting with a delay in women's participation in international representation.

UN Women affirms that access to clean water is a fundamental human right, regardless of gender, location, or situation. In the 1948 Declaration of Human Rights, the water right was considered implicitly recognized (Gleick 1998), given its need to reach others, as in item 1 of Article XXV (UN Report 2010).

However, from the 1960s onward, environmental issues began to be treated as an agenda for various social segments. In the 1970s, a deeper analysis of the development model and its relationship with the environment was conducted (Nogueira 2009).

Water and the environment are recent concerns in the international scene. Discussions on water at this scale began with the United Nations Conference on the Environment in Stockholm in 1972 (Vasseur 1973). However, it was only in 1977, at the United Nations Conference on Water in Mar del Plata, that an international forum was held dedicated to the issue of water (UN Report 1980).

In 1980, the World Conference on Women took place in Copenhagen, Denmark, during the Women's Decade (1975–1985), which was approved at a conference in 1975. Under the motto of ‘Education, Employment, and Health’, the conference reinforced rights through immediate actions by the signatory states. For the second half of the decade, an action program aimed at gender equality was a relevant topic on the international agenda. Among the decisions adopted from the event, some resolutions emphasized the importance of supporting women in rural areas worldwide (UN Report 1980).

In January 1992, this agenda returned to the core of global discussions at the International Conference on Water and the Environment in Dublin, Ireland (Koudstaal et al. 1992). This was the first attempt to establish parameters for water management for women.

Concerning the gender issues associated with water, Principle N°3 emphasizes that the crucial role of women as providers and users of water is not reflected in the institutional structure of the development and management of water resources. The defined principles were considered at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), known as Rio-92. During this event, Brazil and 178 other countries were a signatory of Global Agenda 21 – a comprehensive program of action designed to promote and achieve sustainable development.

Agenda 21 highlights the need for female participation in water management to optimize water use efficiency locally. For this, it is essential to implement projects that include public participation and develop and strengthen women's essential role in the planning and management of water resources (Koudstaal et al. 1992). 2000 after the Millennium Summit, the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) were established to be achieved by 2015. Among the eight global goals recognized by the UN member countries, which joined efforts to reduce poverty extremes, Goal N°3 referred to promoting gender equality and women's empowerment.

In 2001, the campaign ‘WASH’ – Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene – was launched by the WSSCC – Water Supply Collaborative Council – in a global effort to place this issue on the agenda of the first year of the 21st century. It highlights the high prices paid by women and children for the lack of access to these services and their importance in the daily struggle for cleanliness and dignity.

The study was conducted based on direct observations and semi-structured interviews. The interviewees were community council members, operators, or people in charge of the treatment plant. They were chosen mainly according to availability, as not all could be contacted beforehand. The interviews aimed to identify women who represented the reality within the communities and participated in community water management. The interviewers included 14 women from different communities, the low number reflective of the low participation rate of women in management. Indeed, most had only one or two female members. The gender assessment research in community water management demonstrates the importance of socio-economic and climate interference regarding women's participation in water committees.

To avoid possible intimidation and embarrassment in the interviewees' responses, the team was made up exclusively of women who prepared themselves to come into contact with community members. All interviewees were aware of the research and signed the Free and Informed Consent Form regarding the use of their statements.

The interviews were conducted at the association's facilities or interviewees' residences in March 2020. The questionnaires included personal questions and others related to the association and interviewees' perceptions of the challenges faced in the equitable participation of genders in decision-making on supply systems.

The interview participants were identified in the text through their occupations in the association and assigned a number for their description and differentiation. Data were obtained from basic statistical analyses based on the presented bibliography. We adopted a purposeful selection strategy to select key information obtained from interviews to identify experiences, challenges, and interactions with the proposed theme (Makaya et al. 2020). The selection of variables was based on the authors' longstanding knowledge and experience of the study area and district water management.

The results show that the women interviewed in Espírito Santo were younger and had an average of one child. In Ceará, women were older and had an average of two children, which is consistent with national IBGE statistics. All the women interviewed were literate and had different levels of education. Half of them had completed high school, indicating that level of education is not a determining factor in female expression in community management. In Espírito Santo, 71% of women from communities said they had a division of tasks at home, in line with reports that the distribution of domestic activities is unequal between men and women (Rosa et al. 2019b; Matos & Carrieri 2022). Most interviewees affirmed that they managed to reconcile their work with domestic chores.

This statement reflects what is already widely discussed in the literature: that women are mainly responsible for unpaid domestic services and are the main users of water (Mandara et al. 2017; Mommen et al. 2017; Chew et al. 2019). Based on the interviews, 85% of the women believed they had a voice within the association, although not all stated that the participation between men and women in management was equitable. Both accounts infer the challenges intrinsic to social and communal gender roles. The social constructs that determine distinct roles for gender as the cause of this inequality (Gutiérrez Villalpando et al. 2013).

The association's treasurer's and president's comments reaffirm the importance of women's role as pillars of family and domestic care but highlight the lack of women's perspectives on participation and empowerment in water management. Despite belonging to the same country, both localities demonstrated different forms of cultural perceptions in their answers to the interviews and the issue of differing water availabilities in each region. In Espírito Santo, management participation faces other social challenges. Even though the participants positively expressed being welcomed within the committees, the interviewees reported a lack of interest from other women in participating in the community association.

In Espírito Santo, the interviewees stated that their ideas were accepted during the meetings. Empinotti (2010) and Matos & Carrieri (2022) observed different results. However, many do not recognize themselves in their leadership roles, even if their decisions are approved and supported by their positions and concrete results. The fact that they do not recognize their speaking roles occurs mainly because of the gender structure.

It is essential to highlight that this study, although related to the issues of gender and water in rural settings, also reflects social, cultural, and geographically distinct conditions. Ceará is located in the northeast region of Brazil, with low rainfall and prolonged droughts. Water scarcity translates into difficulties in the family system, namely the position of women in society and their responsibilities. The responsibilities include work in the field and domestic chores and care. Some members of community water management recounted their journeys to the associations.

Despite evidence of a high level of unity and camaraderie among members, respondents indicated that they live in a situation where they have to fight for the right to have a voice within the community. Despite being involved in the decision-making process of water management, the community leaders interviewed expressed a greater need to assert themselves to have their rights recognized.

The influence of social roles on gender equity in water management is also felt by women in society. However, as the treasurer points out, it takes a lot of struggle and dedication for these women to overcome these challenges, which makes equity an even greater challenge (Sam & Todd 2020; Scherer et al. 2021; Silva & Rezende 2022). In northeastern Brazil, the predominance of social roles is still evident in the solid patriarchal system in the region, which hinders the occupation of women in decision-making positions, culminating in socially skewed power relations (Fernandes & Londhe 2015). When questioned at the local level in rural communities, patriarchal culture, machismo, and the devaluation of domestic activities predetermine women's social/economic perimeter in these regions, limiting their possibilities for advancement (Nogueira 2009; Costa et al. 2015).

When asked about effective participation in management and whether she feels her voice is heard, the interviewee raises another challenge. The influence of social roles goes beyond the ability to participate in water committees; the challenge extends to the respect and empowerment of these women in the management and operation of the supply systems. This limitation of female power is the cause of adversities such as the feminization of poverty, work overload, lack of financial and emotional autonomy, and difficulty in achieving personal growth. The social constructs of gender roles in rural communities, as noted in the literature, also stood out in the interviews (Dery et al. 2021).

Women's participation in community water management in Ceará resembles that of the international scenario (Senbeta & Shu 2019). In Cabo Verde, 77% of the rural population can access safe drinking water. Some spaces allow debates regarding equity between men and women, which consequently decreases gender disparity in decision-making environments and increases awareness in communities (Hora et al. 2015). At a meeting in Ceará, the research participants who played roles in community management demonstrated that they were comfortable expressing their perceptions of women's participation in the association. It became evident how determined and bold these women were in decision-making positions and stressing the importance of water. The integration of water into this management system has transformed their lives, as water is an intrinsic part of their reality and daily lives.

The effects of patriarchy on gender roles in society are also felt by women in particular, making one group vulnerable in terms of safe access to water, which makes it difficult for community management to meet their needs. Women have managed to empower themselves and attain leadership positions that men mostly occupy. To accomplish this, they overcome cultural, psychological, and financial adversities. While promoting satisfaction, this commitment also reveals the need for other women to break down their barriers and integrate themselves into this space.

The results of the field research show the different demands and needs of women who are part of water organizations and committees, such as the availability of water in the environment, the distance to the water supply, and local cultural differences. Despite the peculiarities of the regions studied, women's participation in municipal water management could be more balanced and more accessible in both municipalities. It is necessary to effectively include the gender of the debtor in decision-making processes. Although two different Brazilian regions were addressed (Northeast and Southeast), it is possible to verify a consonance in the perception of women and an alignment with studies addressing gender in municipal water management in Latin America and other continents, according to the literature (Ruiz-Meza 2011; Boateng et al. 2013; Gutiérrez Villalpando et al. 2013).

The interviewees who participated in management emphasized the importance of encouraging the participation of other women in the association. However, they recognize the challenges of disseminating this idea because social constructs do not favor the prominent roles of women. These challenges can be associated with ‘the reconciliation of feelings that oscillate between pain and pride’ regarding gender and water. Additionally, they reported that invitations to participate in elections and slates occurred through third parties (husbands and male relatives). This shows that despite space for female participation, there is much difficulty in engaging other women in issues related to water management.

The tenuous discussion of the theme makes disseminating the subject to rural communities impossible. It hinders the creation of instruments and tools for management planning involving women in decision-making and the evolution of the social sphere. Therefore, interventions based on human rights, social participation, and equity are necessary to improve access to water. The sustainability of community-managed systems depends on the population's participation in all stages of project planning. The effective participation of women in all stages of implementation was also observed in the literature (Chew et al. 2019). In addition to these interventions, the population must have access to local education to encourage women's participation in system management. Education is an essential tool for women to recognize their needs and the influence of historically constructed social roles, directly influencing their social positions, empowering them in the struggle to conquer their rights and thus changing their future within the community.

In order to mitigate the impact of social inequalities on human rights, there is an urgent need for public policies that take into account social justice and that emphasize the importance of addressing the structural inequalities that exist in society. The equitable development of society, the well-being of all citizens, and the sustainable development of rural communities can only be achieved through policies that ensure that the material and strategic needs of all social groups are met, especially the most vulnerable, such as women facing gender inequality and communities lacking access to water. The implementation of such policies requires an understanding of the social and economic dynamics that perpetuate inequality and exclusion of vulnerable groups such as the poorest and women (Fraser 2009).

In the legislative sphere, it is necessary to implement gender objectives in water resource management and aim for fairer legislation with effective proposals for women's participation in water resource management (Matos & Carrieri 2022). Public policies regarding water must introduce tools and mean that can structure this reality in more vulnerable places while recognizing the importance of women in management and guaranteeing their presence in organizations and water and environmental committees as leaders, in addition to an educational project on the subject within communities. These resources should incorporate the importance of gender equity into water policies and highlight women's voices to expose and address their different needs. The proposal was also discussed by Matos & Carrieri (2022).

This study investigated the influence of social constructions of gender and regionalization on water resource management in rural communities in the states of Ceará and Espírito Santo, Brazil. Through interviews with women in community water management associations, we identified significant challenges these women face in both regions, despite differing socio-environmental conditions. The results showed that women in Ceará face considerable difficulties in participating effectively in water resource management due to the dual burden of unpaid domestic work and community responsibilities. In contrast, in Espírito Santo, although women have an active voice in water committees, there is a notable lack of interest in participating in community associations. In both regions, patriarchal norms and the lack of social recognition of women's work are significant barriers.

To achieve the study's objectives, we propose implementing legal and social strategies that promote gender equality. These strategies should include community-based education and training programs that emphasize the importance of women's participation in water resource management. Public policies need to be reformed to incorporate gender objectives, promote inclusive and equitable practices, and address structural inequalities by recognizing the importance of women in water resource management. The effective participation of women is crucial to achieving equitable access to resources and improving the health of communities. Policies that promote gender equity and include women's voices are fundamental to sustainable development and building rural communities' resilience to socio-environmental challenges.

This study reinforces the importance of addressing gender disparities in water resource management and offers practical recommendations to promote equitable participation of women, contributing to the sustainability and well-being of rural communities in Brazil. These results are limited to the two rural communities studied and, therefore, cannot be generalized to all regions of Brazil. Specific studies for each region of the country are indicated for future research.

All relevant data are included in the paper or its Supplementary Information.

The authors declare there is no conflict.