Co-creation of Affordable and Clean Pumped Irrigation for Smallholders: Lessons from Nepal and Malawi

Pumped irrigation is a way to intensify smallholder production. In this context, the Dutch company aQysta has developed the Barsha pump (BP), the ﬁ rst-ever commercial version of the spiral pumps. BPs, however, face several constraints that affect the decision-making and access of smallholders to this and other agricultural technologies, and thus to their bene ﬁ ts. On this subject, Product Service System (PSS) is a type of business model able to potentially cope with a number of restrictions of different nature. Moreover, if co-created with the feedback of the users, and by addressing contextual tensions of different cases, these models can be substantially richer than their top-down counterparts. Six cases of the use of BPs have been addressed in Nepal and Malawi. Both primary and secondary data, analyzed qualitatively under the analytic induction approach, were collected through unstructured interviews and Q-methodology. Evidence shows a wide range of (non-)technical facilitating and hampering conditions for the BP, as well as preferences of the smallholders in regard to existing and proposed business model elements. Based on the corresponding analysis, a set of opportunities for an improved BP-based business model – PSS, aiming to ful ﬁ l several (and at times opposing) needs, is ultimately proposed in the current paper.


INTRODUCTION
Given the significant number of smallholder farms worldwide (Lowder et al. ), intensifying their crop production is key for food security, as well as in creating positive impacts in their livelihoods. Amongst many challenges that smallholders face, proper water management is one of the most critical elements to achieve such objectives (Giordano et al. ). A way to improve (or enable) access to and control of irrigation water is byyet not limited to -the use of pumping technologies to water lands that will remain otherwise (partly) unirrigated throughout the year.
Most water pumping systems, however, operate on electricity or fossil fuels, and thus are (too) cost-intensive, or even inaccessible, for many smallholders due to the continuous use of these inputs (Chandel et al. ); moreover, they affect environmental quality due to their gaseous emissions and noise. Comparatively, more environmentally sound technologies, and at times less expensive ones, are renewable energy (RE)-based water pumps (Gopal et al. ). From these, hydro-powered pumping (HPP) technologiesi.e. those hydro-mechanically driven by the water they liftgive even further advantages over their other RE counterparts (Fraenkel ).
The Dutch start-up company aQysta developed the Barsha pump (BP), the first ever commercial version of an HPP device traditionally referred to as a 'spiral pump', first reported during the 18th century (Ziegler )  respectively. In Nepal, the agricultural sector represents 27.6% of the GDP, and involves roughly 65% of the labor force. Of the total smallholder farms, though being more than half of Nepal's farmlands, barely 15% are irrigated (Karki et al. ). Along the same lines, Malawi holds 30% of its GDP by agriculture, which in turn comprises 64% of the working population (Chinseu et al. ). (2) to highlight the underlying reasons for (not) using the BP, with emphasis on the most preferred/least preferred current and proposed BP business model elements (BME); and (3) to set grounds, based on the feedback of smallholders, for the future co-design of an improved BP-based PSS.

Criteria for selection of use cases
The BP use-cases were selected within certain Nepali and Malawian smallholder communities, during the field visits in June-July 2019thus during the respective dry seasons to ensure a strong interaction of the farmers with the BPsbased on the following criteria: (1) at least one BP must have been posing a continuous presence for !2 months; and (2) in accordance with the CVD approach, the BP use-cases must show different characteristics (e.g. topography, water source, facilitating/hampering conditions) between each other. It is worth mentioning that this is a cross-sectional study, hence single-point data collection from each case was conducted.

Data collection
Primary data, both quantitative and qualitative in nature, was collected during the field visit period, and triangulated mainly by: (1) unstructured interviews with BP users, other smallholders (non-BP users), and experts (authorities, NGOs) relevant to the chosen communities; and (2) Q-methodology.
Q-methodology is an increasingly popular quali-quantitative technique to study human subjectivity in regard to any phenomenon (Dziopa & Ahern ). It is deemed to be a highly participatory methodthus relevant for the present studyin which participants acquire an active role in developing their points of view, rather than becoming mere data sources (Donner ; Ellingsen et al. ). Furthermore, this method was additionally chosen because its reliability does not depend on the sample size of respondents but rather on their diversity of opinions (ten Klooster et al.

)
, and hence is suitable for working under the CVD approach described above. In this particular study, Q-methodology was administered to the smallholders with statements related to the adoption and use of the BP, as well as preferences for extra products and services to enhance its benefits.
Secondary data, which complemented the understanding of the researched phenomenon, was collected through: (1) databases administered by aQysta on the use of BPs; (2) official documents issued by the respective Nepali and Malawian authorities; and (3) other related literature.

Data analysis
Due to the nature of the data, as well as to the size of the selected population, the collected data were analyzed qualitatively, under the analytic induction approach. Particular attention will be given to contrasting data between cases, in line with the aforementioned CVD approach.

Business model canvas
The description of business models in both Nepali and Malawian cases, and the analysis of the building blocks and their interactions will be done by means of the Business Model Canvas tool, as designed by Osterwalder & Pigneur ().

Description of current business models
The business models around the BP, both in Nepal and Malawi, are substantially product-oriented; namely, they present a strong component in selling a productthe pumpwith few or no additional services linked to it. However, their main differences lie in: (1) the channels through which the BP are delivered to smallholders; (2) the way the BP is purchased; and (3)     identifiedalready more than two decades agokey problems and required conditions for optimum implementation of these systems; however, it seems paradoxical that even nowadays those remain somehow the same in the cases analyzed in this study.

Brief description of cases
On the basis of the criteria pointed out above, the selected communities were, in Nepal: (1) Table 3.
Relying on six cases, three per each country, might seem non-optimal for drawing generalized conclusions with respect to co-creating a business model. However, and particularly strengthened by the nature of Q-methodology (ten The farmer argued this was due to the forthcoming rains, hence potential floods that could wash away the pumps; however, this might also be occurring due to the preferential use of groundwater sources within his lands. According to other interviewees, the farmer receives more revenues from selling groundwater to neighbors than the agricultural produce itself. This coincides with the fact that some plots remain barren, although he could ensure higher water volumes by additionally using the two BPs. Case 4: Michiru. This farm is a BP demonstration site in the Blantyre District. Since the farmer is aware of the global warming effect, he sees the BP as an ideal technology. The unit has been in his possession for three months without any charge, after which he will have to start paying it off.
The BP has been working so far irregularly due to waterlevel fluctuations. Consequently river managementdone through sandbagswill remain a reoccurring activity. The water supplied is used to irrigate several types of vegetables.
Moreover, the farmer constructed a reservoir, which acts both as water storage and fish pond, to further manage the pumped water. After filling it, the water quickly seeped away; aQysta has offered to supply a plastic lining to tackle this issue. Although this lining is not provided as part of any BP-marketed package, the company is interested in reaching a high performance for this demonstration site, hence the offer.
Case 5: Tedzani. This farm is an experimental site, intended to test BP feasibility in the Shire River. Its conditions, however, are challenging: too deep to anchor the BP, the water speed too low next to the banks, a rapidly fluctuant water level, and housing crocodiles. If this installation becomes successful, the farmer will pay the BP off in instalmentsa key driver for her choiceafter which she is willing to buy another one. The main reason to adopt a BP was to cut down on the fuel costs of the pumps that are currently used for irrigation. The BP was in the water but not operating due to low water-speed.
Case 6: Kachere cooperative. This is a group of smallholders that has received support from several organizations; they shifted from watering-cans to treadle pumps, and later on to diverting the river and gravity irrigation. None of these methods worked to their satisfaction, and as such they inquired after a BP, which was provided after paying a deposit.
Yet, they find the pumped flowrate insufficient compared with other (conventional) water pumps. This occurs due to the mismatch in the irrigation water supply and demand, associated with the lack of efficient irrigation systems (e.g. drippers, sprinklers) and buffer storage infrastructure (e.g. tanks, reservoirs). As a consequence, water surplus continuously pumped through the night is not stored but simply flows off.
Moreover, even though farmers are aware that they could pay in instalments, affordability is still a concern.
Facilitating and hampering conditions for the BP

Preferences on existing and proposed BME
Most preferred existing BME • To offer water pumping systems rather than mere pumping devices; i.e. to give BP-based packages with customized (outsourced) services such as irrigation and water management infrastructure, thereby increasing the usefulness of the BP under a wider range of scenarios.
Whenever required, additional civil infrastructure that ensures optimal operation of BPs (weirs, dams, funnels) should be considered as an integral part of these systems.
Nevertheless, the technical-financial feasibility of these components, due to their potential complexity, is worth a separate study.
• To operate with financial aids (e.g. subsidies, microloans), which support BP affordability, along with copayment conditions from the end-users. Moreover, extra services offered along with the BP could be attached to these payment methods as well.
• • To ensure optimal working conditions whenever required, by the commissioning of additional infrastructure (weirs, diversion canals, gates) that can be outsourced. This will require, however, further assessment of financing and pay-off methods. Otherwise, BP underperformance could ultimately affect its perceived usefulness amongst farmers.

CONCLUSIONS
Hundreds of BPs are in use in several countries. From these, six cases from Nepal and Malawi were selected and analyzed due to their noticeable differences. In line with the wide range of conditions, the BP owners/users, as well as their neighboring farmers, showed different attitudes on the technical performance of the device and its respective BMEs. Nevertheless, and in line with the CVD approach, instead of aiming for a tailor-made top-down solution for specific situations, the present paper shows how embracing such a diversity could enable co-created richeryet not perfectsolutions to fulfil several (and at times opposed) needs while coping with different restrictions. Notwithstanding the participatory capabilities of the employed methods, this study has become just a first attempt at hearing unheard smallholders, aiming towards the co-creation of knowledge on improved BP-based business models.