The technology of slope vegetation system stability enhancement is an important part of the comprehensive ecological security improvement in small watersheds area of the Loess Plateau. The results of the comprehensive soil erosion improvement in the sub-basin are used to give an evaluation of the effectiveness of the gully slope vegetation restoration project. Soil erosion quantification distribution in the Sheep Sap Gully sub-basin of the Loess Plateau hilly gully area was simulated and explored by combining the modified universal soil loss equation RUSLE model with GIS and RS spatial information technology. The quantitative values of LS factor were extracted using DEM data, the R factor of rainfall erosion force was calculated using meteorological monitoring station data around this region, the K factor of erosion resistance was obtained based on the soil survey database, and the C factor and P factor of soil and water conservation measures were obtained by combining MODIS image data and previous research experience. The study concluded that (1) The erosion area ratio within the study area is 36.33%; (2) The quantitative grading standard of the pattern, the size of the erosion distribution area at all levels is ranked as light>moderate>very strong>strong>intense; (3) Under the conditions of land use and vegetation cover, strong erosion is mostly found in farming areas with sparse vegetation, while weak erosion is found in areas with lush vegetation such as forests and grasslands; (4) In terms of spatial distribution, erosion is greater in the south-western part of the basin than in the north-eastern part, and there is also strong erosion in the south-western part. The results of the study provide a reference for research into integration and synthesis of ecological security technologies for gully and slope management projects. The research content provides the basis and support for watershed governance and soil and water resource management and conservation.
HIGHLIGHTS
Quantification of soil erosion on the Loess Plateau for the regulation of hydrological and water resources.
Quantitative means of each model's key factors.
RUSLE model is a new technology that combines RS and GIS.
Data support of quantitative results for integrated soil and water management in small watersheds.
For soil and water conservation research support in the Loess Plateau region.
Graphical Abstract
INTRODUCTION
One of the modern measures to combat soil erosion, one of the biggest ecological problems in the world, is the implementation of reforestation and grass restoration projects (Yue et al. 2015). By changing the pattern of the ecosystem in the area, the project has a positive effect on the restoration of vegetation, improving soil erosion and controlling soil erosion in the area. Since the project was implemented in August 1999, significant results have been achieved. In the 21st century, soil erosion research in China is facing new opportunities and challenges (Gong et al. 2022). Therefore, how to accurately reveal the principles, processes and laws of soil erosion, investigate the ways in which natural and human factors act on soil erosion, establish soil erosion models, make objective and systematic evaluations of the environmental benefits of soil erosion on a regional and global (Liu et al. 2021), propose targeted strategic solutions and technical approaches to prevent and control soil erosion in conjunction with the use of water and soil resources, and create a benign ecological environment are of far-reaching significance to achieve national ecological security and healthy economic development, and to promote scientific and technological research and development in the field of soil and water conservation (Wang et al. 2017).
In this paper, with the help of the RUSLE model, the factors and calculation results and raster data results related to soil erosion such as R rainfall erosion force, K soil erosion resistance, LS terrain factor, C vegetation cover factor were obtained respectively, and the calculation of soil erosion A was constructed with the help of ArcGIS10.2 platform using Model Builder modelling work The model is used to discuss the use of the RUSLE model and the application of GIS Geographical statistics for this study, which gives a reference for the research on soil erosion in small watersheds of Loess Plateau and has far-reaching significance to promote soil and water conservation disciplines (Wang et al. 2022).
In the first section of the article, the background of the study and the technical methods of the study and the significance of the study are introduced; the second section introduces the study area and the basic data of the study, and lists the calculation methods and formulas one by one; the third section discusses and analyzes the quantitative results of each factor, and estimates the amount of erosion in the study area and the overall analysis; and the final section summarizes the research methods and the results of the study in the whole article.
DATA AND METHODS
Study area scope
The study area is in a geomorphic gully interspersed with loess beams and loess ditches, with a density of 2.74 kg/km2 and an altitude of about 1,050–1,295 m. It has a semi-arid continental monsoon climate and an average annual precipitation of 535 mm, and the rainy season is mostly concentrated in July-September each year, accounting for about 79% of the annual precipitation, with a large interannual variability of precipitation. The annual sunshine hours are 2,528.8 h, the annual average temperature is 9.40 °C, and the annual difference in temperature is 29.40 °C (Zhao et al. 2016). The soils are mainly yellow cotton soil with loose structure, poor erosion resistance, and severe soil erosion (Azadeh et al. 2017). The vegetation of the watershed belongs to the forest-steppe transition zone in terms of zoning. The natural vegetation in the watershed has been destroyed due to the disturbance of human activities, and nowadays it is mostly planted with artificial secondary vegetation, and the artificial species of plant species mainly include acacia, oleander, sea buckthorn, lemon grass, alfalfa, etc. (Zhang et al. 2015). The average multi-year rainfall erosion force was 1,755.83 (MJ·mm)/(hm2·h) before reforestation (before 1999) and 2,155.71(MJ·mm)/(hm2·h) after reforestation. At present, the land types in the watershed are mainly sloping farmland, terraced farmland, forest, scrub, grassland, residential land, and water.
Experimental data
Soil erosion conditions in small watersheds were simulated with the modified universal soil loss equation (RUSLE), involving arithmetic parameters including precipitation, soil, topography, vegetation, soil and water conservation measures and other factors in the study target area. Daily rainfall data from 1997–2016 from the Yan'an Climate Observatory from the China Meteorological Data Network (http://data.cma.cn/) were used in this study. Soil texture data were provided through the Chinese soil texture data base from the Resource and Environment Science Data Center of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (http://www.resdc.cn), which has small variability due to the characteristics of loess and is based on the current year in terms of temporal resolution. Topographic data were generated using DEM data with 5 m spatial resolution by using interpolation of actual elevation points in the watershed. Vegetation cover data were obtained from MODIS vegetation index data through the Geospatial Data Cloud (http://www.gscloud.cn/). The vegetation cover and soil conservation data were taken depending on the empirical values of the researchers.
Methodology
R factor
In Equation (2), F is the average annual rainfall (mm) and R the average annual rainfall erosion force; α and β are the model inputs; and in Equation (3) P is the total annual rainfall (mm) and ri is the monthly rainfall (mm) in that year. Based on the results of literature studies, the values of parameters α and β in the rainfall model of this study area were taken as α = 0.184 and β = 1.96, respectively, and the average rainfall erosion force of the past 20 years in the Sheep Shed Gully sub-basin was derived from the daily rainfall data and equations from 1997 to 2016.
K factor
The calculation of soil erodibility factor K is based on the participation of soil particle composition and organic matter parameters in soil texture properties, including content of sand, clay grain, chalk and organic matter. The factor K in the RUSLE model is a value obtained through experiments. It is quantitative and the K-factor is usually obtained by direct measurement of soil loss per unit of precipitation erosion force in standard natural plots, but it is difficult to deploy natural plots in this watershed on a large scale, and in this paper we use Williams' calculation of K-value in the EPIC model (Williams 1990).
LS factor
C-factor
P-factor
The P-factor is related to the type of land use in the subsurface, and Wischmier and Smith (Wischmeier 1978) showed that the P-value is between 0 and 1 and is a dimensionless number (Li et al. 2013). The soil conservation measure factor P is the most difficult parameter to obtain in the model. It can be measured by runoff plot tests, but this method is costly and time-consuming, and the measured results have regional limitations. In this study, we combined the research results of Deyan Zhong and Baoyuan Liu (Liu et al. 1999) on the Sheep Circle Ditch sub-basin with Landsat8 data to superimpose the results of land use classification decoding to get the P value, and other contained classifications as dams, roads, industrial and mining land, and oil fields.
DISCUSSION AND ANALYSIS
Factor calculation results
K-factor calculation
Soil mass content distribution. (a) Quantification value of clay particles. (b) Quantification value of sand particles. (c) Quantification value of powder particles. (d) Quantification of organic carbon values.
Soil mass content distribution. (a) Quantification value of clay particles. (b) Quantification value of sand particles. (c) Quantification value of powder particles. (d) Quantification of organic carbon values.
R factor calculation
LS factor calculation
C-factor calculation
Quantized value of factor C and P under different land use classification
Land use type . | Grassland . | Forest . | Cropland . | Orchard . | Terraces . | water . | bare ground . | Other . | Residential . |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
C | 0.23 | 0.03 | 0.35 | 0.05 | 0.31 | / | 1.0 | 0 | 0.9 |
P | 0.9 | 0.7 | 1 | 0.8 | 0.35 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 |
Land use type . | Grassland . | Forest . | Cropland . | Orchard . | Terraces . | water . | bare ground . | Other . | Residential . |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
C | 0.23 | 0.03 | 0.35 | 0.05 | 0.31 | / | 1.0 | 0 | 0.9 |
P | 0.9 | 0.7 | 1 | 0.8 | 0.35 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 |
P-factor calculation
Calculation results and analysis
Soil erosion grade classification table
. | Soil erosion amount . | Tiny . | Mild . | Medium . | Strong . | intense . | Severe . |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Area (km2) | 71.75 | 125.75 | 43.86 | 18.74 | 6.26 | 9.07 | 0.59 |
Proportion (%) | 36.33 | 63.67 | 22.21 | 9.49 | 3.17 | 4.59 | 0.3 |
. | Soil erosion amount . | Tiny . | Mild . | Medium . | Strong . | intense . | Severe . |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Area (km2) | 71.75 | 125.75 | 43.86 | 18.74 | 6.26 | 9.07 | 0.59 |
Proportion (%) | 36.33 | 63.67 | 22.21 | 9.49 | 3.17 | 4.59 | 0.3 |
The calculated soil erosion in this study area is 3,175.16 t/(km2·a), which is close to 3,270.19 t/(km2·a) as calculated by Zhao Wenqi (Yi et al. 2015) for the 2014 Sheep Sap Ditch sub-basin, concluding that the Loess Plateau area has experienced many years of reforestation and comprehensive small watershed management projects have contributed to soil and water conservation, which is a non-intense erosion area. From Table 2, From this, it is clear that the soil erosion area of the whole watershed is 71.75 km2, accounting for 36.33% of the total area of the study area. The area and proportion of different levels of soil erosion are: 27.25 km2 for slight erosion, accounting for 63.67% of the area; 9.27 km2 for light erosion, area share of 22.21%; 19.53 km2 for moderate erosion, accounting for 9.49% of the area; 75.65 km2 for strong erosion, accounting for 3.17% of the total area of the study area; and 3.17% for very strong erosion. 3.17%; very strong erosion area 4.59 km2, accounting for 1.16% of this; severe erosion's area is2.71 km2, accounting for 0.3% of the total area of the study area. Slight and mild erosion is the mainly soil erosion, accounting for 85.88% of the occurring soil erosion area. The largest area of slight erosion and the smallest area of severe erosion, and the overall distribution is contiguous. The soil erosion intensity of each level is arranged in the order of area: mild > medium > intense > strong > severe.
- (1)
In the model calculation, the perennial rainfall in the Loess Plateau area is basically stable, and the changes of soil texture, which is mainly yellow sheep soil, are not significant, resulting in constant rainfall erosion force R and soil erodibility factor K. Only the topographic factor LS and vegetation index-related C and P factors become strongly correlated to the soil erosion amount. The steeper the slope and the longer the slope length, both will make the soil erosion intensity become larger and the erosion volume increase. Therefore, we can consider reducing the slope by cutting a steep slope into a gentle slope when carrying out comprehensive watershed management in land engineering, and truncating the length of slope gully management to reduce the runoff pooling time.
- (2)
From the perspective of vegetation cover, the planting of protective forests should be vigorously carried out within the red line of guaranteed arable land, and plants suitable for the survival of the Loess Plateau should be planted in the gully and slope to improve the capability of soil and water conservation and increase the area covered by various types of vegetation to decrease the occurrence of soil erosion.
- (3)
In this study, remote sensing data and spatial GIS data were innovatively used to quantify the factors for soil erosion calculation, in which the P-factor was quantified using the integrated management of small watersheds and the current land use status, so that the P-value could be more accurately derived in comparison with previous research results.
- (4)
The study has shown that the areas with higher soil erosion intensity have been mainly concentrated in the south-west channel, including slope land, steps of ditches, gully slope, and construction land in the north-east. Meanwhile, the soil erosion intensity on the arable land, channels with good vegetation, and gully bottom with gentle terrain have been lower. The soil erosion modulus of 3,175.16 t/(km2·a) (2018) calculated in this study was reduced from 3,270.19 t/(km2·a) derived from the study of Zhao et al. (2016). This also indicates that the adoption of integrated ecological management projects in the Sheep Sap Ditch sub-basin of the Loess Plateau has produced some improvement in local soil erosion. The ecological restoration policy and afforestation projects in recent years have also transformed the local land use from arable land to woodland and grassland, which has played a certain role in preventing soil erosion.
CONCLUSION
GIS and RS were used to obtain quantitative data of each parameter of the modified soil erosion equation (RUSLE), and the quantitative calculation of the soil erosion evaluation was carried out in the Sheep Sap Ditch sub-basin of Loess Plateau by combining the modeling method, and the influence of the differentiation of different factors on the change of soil erosion intensity in the sub-basin was analyzed. The soil erosion area is 71.75 km2, accounting for 36.33% of the total area of the study area. The study area has the largest area of slight erosion and the smallest area of intense erosion, and the soil erosion intensity of each class in the order of area is light>moderate>strong>very strong>intense. In terms of spatial distribution, the watershed is larger to the south-west than to the north-east and is accompanied by highly erosive conditions, so appropriate protection measures and comprehensive watershed management are needed to stabilize the ecological environment. The erosion covers the whole small watershed, and the soil erosion varies significantly under different land use types and vegetation cover, mostly occurring in arable land, terraces, and orchards, where the erosion condition is more severe; woodland, grassland, and shrubs are mainly slightly and lightly eroded. Another influencing factor of PTU is that the soil erosion intensity also varies greatly under different slope topography, where the erosion area accounts for the largest 15%∼25% slope zone, and the erosion intensity is mainly slight and mild.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research was fund by Technology Innovation Center for Land Engineering and Human Settlements, Shaanxi Land Engineering Construction Group Co., Ltd and Xi'an Jiaotong University (2021WHZ0088) and (2021WHZ0091). and Scientific Research Item of Shaanxi Provincial Land Engineering Construction Group (DJNY2022-33).
DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT
All relevant data are included in the paper or its Supplementary Information.