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Water supply is one of the important functions provided to humans by the ecosystem. Water supply by the ecosystem leads to sustainable economic development, ecological restoration and food security for human societies. Therefore, the evaluation of the water supply capacity of the ecosystem and the analysis of its spatial distribution features play an important role in the implementation of the plan for the protection and exploitation of water resources. Evaluation of ecological economic balance is of great importance in sustainable ecosystem management. This paper was conducted to develop the ecological economic balance structure based on the water supply and land cover changes. Land use was considered in four time periods from 2000 to 2021 with seven-year intervals to evaluate the process of land cover change and water availability. The results showed that the southern and eastern regions addressed a negative trend in the ecological economic balance. These areas have been affected by population growth and urbanization.

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  • Water supply plays an important role in assessing ecological economic.

  • Water supply have caused obvious changes in land use/cover and have increasedthe need for soil protection.

  • Rainfall, evapotranspiration and land use should be considered in eco-hydrological planning.

ecosystem, land use, sustainable management, water supply
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The growth of urbanization and food security requires the protection and restoration of the ecosystem and the improvement of ecological processes (He et al. 2021; Zhang 2021; Wang et al. 2022a). Water and soil are the two main components of agriculture, whose management mechanism is directly related to the environment and ecosystem services (Hou et al. 2021; Wang et al. 2022b). A definition of ecosystem services is the nature benefits in an anthropocentric mechanism for sustainable development goals (Campos et al. 2021). Creating a balance between generating the income from ecosystem services and evaluating its changes to restore water and soil resources can help sustainable management of dry areas (Longo et al. 2018, 2019). Quantitative assessment of the value of ecosystem services has a fundamental role in understanding ecological assets and will create the necessary motivation for protecting and restoring the ecosystem. Therefore, different researchers have addressed the importance of soil erosion, water resources protection, profit evaluation and spatio-temporal dynamics under different uses/land cover and have examined it from different aspects (Huang et al. 2021; Zhu et al. 2021; Wang 2022). Land cover protection is one of the important aspects of ecosystem service performance, which provides an important basis for soil formation, stabilization of vegetation, optimal water use, and protection of ecological security and system services (Xu et al. 2021, 2022b).

At present, the economic models (integrated assessment of ecosystem services and exchange) has become a suitable method and tool for evaluating and predicting the performance of ecosystem services with the advantages of accurate, quantitative, spatial and comprehensive expression (Fang et al. 2021; Zhou & Sun 2022). The appropriateness of data and parameters is the key to reliability of the model (Sun & Khayatnezhad 2021). Campos et al. (2021) evaluated the balance of economic and ecological values to improve conservation outcomes. The monetary values of ecosystem and incorporate habitat quality maps were addressed for setting national conservation targets in mainland Portugal. The results suggested an integrative strategy to save ecosystems and protect services through cost-effective conservation models.

Water supply and land cover are important indicators for evaluating ecological economic balance. Water supply is one of the guaranteeing components for the development of human societies and sustainable ecosystem management (Lalehzari & Kerachian 2021). Based on the important role of water resources on sustainable ecosystem management (Sun et al. 2021), the assessment of water supply capacity and the analysis of its spatial distribution features play an important role in the implementation of the water resources protection and exploitation plan, and it is also one of the important indicators for evaluating ecological economic benefits.

According to the previous studies, it seems that determining the ecological profit of the natural environment is one of the prerequisites for the development of dynamic models of ecosystem restoration. Paying attention to water resources, soil and land cover is very important in this field. In this paper, an attempt has been made to develop a framework for estimating the ecological benefits, considering the capacity of water supply and soil protection. With the developed concepts, the changes of hydrological benefits, water supply and soil conservation have been evaluated in the last two decades.

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Study area

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Gansu Province (36° 3′ 17″ N, 103° 49′ 43″ E) is located in the center of northern China, east of Xinjiang with Shaanxi to the east. Gansu generally has a semi-arid to arid continental climate with warm to hot summers and cold to very cold winters and has abundant rainfall with an average annual precipitation of 800–1,900 mm. The average temperature range in the study area is roughly 0–15 °C. The lowest temperatures occur in January when the temperature averages from −9 °C to 3 °C, and the highest temperatures (averaging from 19 °C to 31 °C) are in July. The southern part of this area, which is shown in Figure 1, is considered for the assessment of ecosystem services. Twelve points with different land uses were selected and required information and experiments were conducted.
Figure 1
Study area in the southern part of Gansu, China.
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Study area in the southern part of Gansu, China.

Figure 1
Study area in the southern part of Gansu, China.
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Study area in the southern part of Gansu, China.

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The information required for the input of the soil conservation model included watershed boundaries, sub basin, precipitation, soil texture, land cover type, and longitudinal slope. Furthermore, grid layers with the same dimensions and projection coordinates are provided for model operation. In this paper, the cells with 25 m × 25 m dimension in WGS_ 1984 coordinate system were used for spatial gridding (Zhou et al. 2021a, 2021b). Topographic data and a land use map were provided from the data service platform of computer network information center of Chinese Academy of Sciences with spatial resolution. The information has been extracted for four periods with an interval of seven years from 2000 to 2021. Arcgis10.2 was used to process the maps to create the input data meet the model requirements (Zhou et al. 2022). Three soil samples were analyzed for each of the 12 points shown in Figure 1, and based on the average values obtained, the soil textures were determined (Zhao et al. 2020).

Ecological benefits of soil conservation

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To evaluate the ecological benefits, it is necessary to calculate the soil losses that occur due to land cover and climatic conditions. Universal soil loss estimation (USLE) can be calculated as follows (Rahaman et al. 2015):
(1)
where R = rainfall/runoff erosivity factor; LS = the slope length-gradient factor; K = Soil erodibility factor; C = land cover factor; P = soil conservation measure factor.

Soil conservation measure factor

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Soil conservation measure factor (P) varies between 0 and 1 and refers to soil loss ratio. In a situation where the revitalization measures have been done well, the value of P approaches 0, which indicates that there is no erosion and soil protection has been done in a sustainable manner. The increase of pi towards one means that no effective measures have been taken to conserve soil and water and the erosion is relatively serious. P values estimated for the different points of study area have been summarized in Table 1.

Table 1

C value, P value and interception rate of different land use types

Land use typesCPRejection/%
1 Grassland 1 1 50 
2 Desert/sand 0.25 1 40 
3 Forest 0.009 1 60 
4 Bare soil 1 1 5 
5 Industrial land 0 0 5 
6 River 0 0 0 
7 Urban land 0.01 0 5 
8 Agricultural field 0.25 0.2 30 
9 Reservoir/pond 0.01 0 60 
10 Herbaceous swamp 0.001 1 60 
11 Arbor green space 0.15 0.8 40 
12 Arbor Garden 0.15 0.8 30 
Land use typesCPRejection/%
1 Grassland 1 1 50 
2 Desert/sand 0.25 1 40 
3 Forest 0.009 1 60 
4 Bare soil 1 1 5 
5 Industrial land 0 0 5 
6 River 0 0 0 
7 Urban land 0.01 0 5 
8 Agricultural field 0.25 0.2 30 
9 Reservoir/pond 0.01 0 60 
10 Herbaceous swamp 0.001 1 60 
11 Arbor green space 0.15 0.8 40 
12 Arbor Garden 0.15 0.8 30 
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Slope length-gradient factor

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Slope length-gradient factor (LS) is a non-dimensional parameter that is calculated by Equations (2) and (3).
(2)
(3)
where S = slope steepness (%); SL = length of slope (m).

Land cover factor

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Land cover factor (C) refers to the ratio of soil erosion amount of a specific crop or natural vegetation after management measures and continuous fallow after clearing tillage under the same soil, terrain and rainfall conditions. As shown in Table 1, the land cover factors are between 0 and 1. It reflects the comprehensive effect of vegetation cover and related management measures on soil erosion. C is mainly affected by land use type, soil moisture, vegetation coverage and planting sequence of vegetation. When C value is 1, the ground is completely exposed without any vegetation; when C value is close to 0, it means that the ground vegetation is well covered. The formula of C factor is as follows.
(4)
where C = the land cover factor; g = the vegetation coverage. For the convenience of calculation, the residential area, industrial land, traffic land and mining site are combined into construction land.

Rejection rate is the ability of each land use type to intercept the sediment from the upstream block, expressed as an integer percentage of 0–100.

Rainfall erosion factor

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Soil erosion coefficient has been used to quantify soil erosion. R is an index that reflects the effect of rainfall on soil separation, displacement and erosion, and is also the main factor of soil erosion. Rainfall erosion coefficient (R) has been calculated by considering the kinetic energy of raindrops (Martínez-Mena et al. 2020). This coefficient is used as a measure for erosion force and rain intensity in previous studies (Lalehzari et al. 2020). The two components of this factor are the total energy of storms and maximum 30-min intensity. The rainfall erosion coefficient was estimated based on these two components for all major storms in the region during the study periods using the frequency distribution of 2-year and 6-h rainfall. Based on this frequency distribution, regression equations were developed to define R factors for three different types of storms (i.e., Type I, Type IA, and Type II). The equations that have been developed to estimate R coefficients, based on the type of storm and rainfall frequency distribution, are (Goldman & Jackson 1986):
(5)
where P2,6 is the 2-year recurrence interval, 6-h rainfall depth (cm).

Soil erodibility factor

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Soil erodibility factor (K) shows both the sensitivity of the soil to erosion and the amount of runoff. Soils with high clay content have low K values, around 0.03 to 0.15, because they are resistant to segregation. Coarse-textured soils, such as sandy soils, have low K values, around 0.05 to 0.2, even though they are easily separated due to low runoff. Medium-textured soils such as silt loam soils have a moderate K value of about 0.25 to 0.4 because they are relatively sensitive to detachment and produce moderate runoff. Soils with high silt content are more erodible (He & Wu 2020). The potassium values for these soils are greater than 0.4, which affects the soil structure for separation and penetration. In this paper, soil samples were taken from 12 selected areas and the soil texture was determined (Figure 2) and the K coefficient was estimated. Moreover, the effect of the longitudinal slope of the land on soil erosion is considered. Therefore, the K coefficient was revised based on the longitudinal slope of the land (Table 2).
Table 2

Modified soil erodibility factor based on land slope

LocationSoil textureSoil erodibility factor (K)Land slopeModified K
1 Clay loam 0.22 0.0008 0.22 
2 Loam 0.26 0.006 0.29 
3 Clay 0.11 0.004 0.15 
4 Clay loam 0.24 0.006 0.27 
5 Loam 0.31 0.0009 0.31 
6 Loam 0.29 0.002 0.31 
7 Sandy clay loam 0.23 0.001 0.24 
8 Silty clay loam 0.21 0.005 0.23 
9 Loam 0.36 0.0009 0.36 
10 Sandy loam 0.19 0.003 0.21 
11 Loam 0.33 0.007 0.37 
12 Clay loam 0.16 0.004 0.18 
LocationSoil textureSoil erodibility factor (K)Land slopeModified K
1 Clay loam 0.22 0.0008 0.22 
2 Loam 0.26 0.006 0.29 
3 Clay 0.11 0.004 0.15 
4 Clay loam 0.24 0.006 0.27 
5 Loam 0.31 0.0009 0.31 
6 Loam 0.29 0.002 0.31 
7 Sandy clay loam 0.23 0.001 0.24 
8 Silty clay loam 0.21 0.005 0.23 
9 Loam 0.36 0.0009 0.36 
10 Sandy loam 0.19 0.003 0.21 
11 Loam 0.33 0.007 0.37 
12 Clay loam 0.16 0.004 0.18 
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Figure 2
Soil texture classification of the study area.
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Soil texture classification of the study area.

Figure 2
Soil texture classification of the study area.
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Soil texture classification of the study area.

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Soil erosion susceptibility

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The next factor considered for the ecological economic value of each point is the soil erosion susceptibility, which is defined as follows.
(6)
The erosion retention in the proposed model is equal to the sum of the sediment retention of the block i and that of the block intercepting the upstream block i−1. This concept is formulated as:
(7)
where ERi = the total amount of sediment retained in the block i. The sediment retention under the dredging condition should be estimated in the next step. Usually, a dead storage capacity is designed in order to accommodate the sediment and reduce the cost of dredging. No dredging operations are required before the dead storage capacity is filled. In order to avoid overestimating the capacity of the plot to retain sediment, the dead storage capacity of the reservoir design is subtracted in the calculation process of the model. The calculation formula is as follows:
(8)
where = the total amount of sediment retained in the cell i under dredging condition; DSTO = design dead storage capacity (m3); SD = the reservoir sediment density (t/m3); RER = the remaining life of reservoir; NPix = the number of pixels in the study area, and CostDre = the dredging cost unit (Renminbi (RMB)/m3).
Another cost is the sediment retention value under the condition of desilting (ERDE). The ecological benefit will be obtained based on the effectiveness of each of these processes.
(9)
where ERDEi = the retention value of sediments in each sub basin p (RMB); T = the remaining life of reservoir; CostDes = the dredging cost (RMB/m3), and r is the bank discount rate (%).
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Water supply

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Water supply is a basic requirement in the assessment of ecosystem services, which can play an undeniable role in the production of agricultural products, the protection of vegetation, the regulation of weather and the expansion of industries and urbanization (Li et al. 2021a, 2021b; Ren & Khayatnezhad 2021). As shown in Figure 3, the water supply potential for 12 predefined points ranges from 31 to 724 mm in 2021. Land cover and soil type are the main ecosystem factors that affect water supply capacity through increasing or decreasing soil permeability. With the progress of urbanization, increase in soil compaction, erosion and decrease in rainfall, water supply capacity has decreased by more than 15%. The largest decrease in water supply is related to urban areas and the lowest fluctuation rate is estimated for the river. The results show that covering the land surface with shrubs or pastures can be effective on the stability of the ecosystem for water supply. The rate of change in points 11 and 12 from 2000 to 2021 was less than 40%.
Figure 3
Water supply in different points of the study area.
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Water supply in different points of the study area.

Figure 3
Water supply in different points of the study area.
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Water supply in different points of the study area.

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Soil conservation

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Soil conservation focuses on many aspects of ecosystem management such as factors affecting residue decomposition, nutrient cycling and plant availability, effects on erosion control, selection of plant varieties for conservation tillage systems, disease control problems, weed control problems, alternate uses of excess residue, machinery requirements and the soil–water–food nexus monitoring (Li et al. 2021a, 2021b; Zhao et al. 2021). Soil conservation has decreased during the study period for all land uses (Table 3). Some fluctuations are observed, such as agricultural lands, but the estimated downward trend is a general rule, which is calculated especially in lands with poor pastures. Climate changes, human lifestyle and the need for food security have been the main factors in reducing soil protection indicators.

Table 3

Total soil conservation of different land cover types in the study area (t/hm2)

Land cover types2000200720142021
1 Grassland 18.42 17.56 15.91 14.72 
2 Desert/sand 1.25 0.97 0.43 0.39 
3 Forest 89.23 76.11 67.63 64.08 
4 Bare soil 8.64 7.88 9.14 8.27 
5 Industrial land 0.93 0.87 0.81 0.72 
6 River 16.85 16.28 14.97 13.42 
7 Urban land 0.38 0.34 0.31 0.32 
8 Agricultural field 23.7 24.35 19.75 18.74 
9 Reservoir/pond 16.27 16.04 15.27 14.26 
10 Herbaceous swamp 22.14 20.09 17.20 16.47 
11 Arbor green space 43.16 41.27 36.17 31.65 
12 Arbor Garden 90.35 88.8 83.98 83.22 
Land cover types2000200720142021
1 Grassland 18.42 17.56 15.91 14.72 
2 Desert/sand 1.25 0.97 0.43 0.39 
3 Forest 89.23 76.11 67.63 64.08 
4 Bare soil 8.64 7.88 9.14 8.27 
5 Industrial land 0.93 0.87 0.81 0.72 
6 River 16.85 16.28 14.97 13.42 
7 Urban land 0.38 0.34 0.31 0.32 
8 Agricultural field 23.7 24.35 19.75 18.74 
9 Reservoir/pond 16.27 16.04 15.27 14.26 
10 Herbaceous swamp 22.14 20.09 17.20 16.47 
11 Arbor green space 43.16 41.27 36.17 31.65 
12 Arbor Garden 90.35 88.8 83.98 83.22 
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Ecological benefits

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Ecological benefit is one of the important components in protecting the land cover and restoring the ecosystem. Considering the ecological benefit and determining its changes over temporal and spatial dimensions, a sustainable plan for soil protection and water supply can be formulated. The average ecological benefit of the study area, of which 12 points were evaluated as samples, is compared in Figure 4. The results showed that the average ecological benefit of the Gansu watershed in 2000 was 28.6 billion RMB per hectare. The slope of ecological profit decline with time showed that it decreased by about 0.2 billion RMB annually. This procedure should be regulated by ecosystem restoration policies and improved in the next 20 years, especially in bore soil and agricultural land covers. Urbanization, climate change, and population growth are factors affecting this phenomenon (Guo et al. 2021).
Figure 4
Ecological benefit changes during 2000–2021.
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Ecological benefit changes during 2000–2021.

Figure 4
Ecological benefit changes during 2000–2021.
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Ecological benefit changes during 2000–2021.

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Changes in the ecological benefits of the study areas in four 7-year periods are shown in Figure 5. The overall trend of ecological benefits over time has been decreasing for all land covers. The ecological benefits in the agricultural lands where the parameters of water supply and land cover change have fluctuated less are estimated at 35, 32, 30 and 25 billion RMB, respectively. One of the reasons for the reduction of ecological profit in agricultural land use is related to the capacity of the soil and water supply. As shown in the figure, the ecological benefits of regions 2, 4, 5 and 7 ranged from 4 to 15 billion RMB, which are the lowest values in the study area. Reservoir/pond, arbor green space, and arbor garden have the highest ecological benefits of about 50 billion RMB. The range of ecological benefit reduction ranges from 1 to 10 billion RMB in the studied areas. The land use that has had the least changes since the release of ecological benefits is in bore soil. This type of land cover in other studies has not had a sudden change of use or ecological value during the time. Forests are most affected by water and climate components and have lost more than 12 billion RMB of ecological benefits in a 20-year period.
Figure 5
Ecological benefits of soil conservation in 2000, 2007, 2014, and 2021.
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Ecological benefits of soil conservation in 2000, 2007, 2014, and 2021.

Figure 5
Ecological benefits of soil conservation in 2000, 2007, 2014, and 2021.
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Ecological benefits of soil conservation in 2000, 2007, 2014, and 2021.

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The comparison of the average ecological benefits in the 12 areas studied between 2000 and 2021 is drawn in Figure 6. The results showed that grassland and agricultural field are in the middle of the classification. Therefore, two approaches can be evaluated. The first solution can be the development of grassland to restore the ecosystems that are in lower ranks in terms of ecological benefits (less than 20 billion RMB). Desert, bare soil and herbaceous swamp are three land uses that can be included in ecological restoration planning with grassland cover. Due to economic considerations and urban development, industrial and urban lands should seek to find other solutions such as creating green space or building a sponge city (Xu et al. 2022a). If investment for grassland coverage is not possible due to climatic conditions, agriculture can be considered as the next solution. Agricultural use has more than 20 billion RMB per hectare more ecological benefits than bare soil.
Figure 6
Ecological benefits of soil conservation different land covers.
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Ecological benefits of soil conservation different land covers.

Figure 6
Ecological benefits of soil conservation different land covers.
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Ecological benefits of soil conservation different land covers.

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This paper proposed a framework for evaluating the ecological economic profit and soil losses based on the time series analysis. For the optimal management of land cover and soil protection, it is necessary to develop a function based on ecosystem services to quantify the components affecting sustainable development. Ecosystem management process can conserve soil nutrients and minimize the loss of nutrients, so as to provide sufficient nutrients and suitable growth conditions for a variety of plants. It should also reduce the amount of sediment entering the river and its water system, protect the water conservation project, reduce the risk of flooding, and extend the time of using the water conservation project to ensure water quality. In terms of soil protection capacity, mulch on the ground can retain rainfall, reduce the speed and intensity of runoff, and penetrate more rainfall into the soil, that is, reduce the external power of soil erosion and play an important role. In addition, soil and water conservation measures in agricultural land, such as constructing terraces and defining contour lines, can also effectively reduce soil erosion.

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All relevant data are included in the paper or its Supplementary Information.

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The authors declare there is no conflict.

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