Evaluation of agricultural wetland utilization and landscape design

Water, food, and energy are the three most closely related key elements in the development of human society. The relationship between them is crucial for global sustainable development and socioeconomic stability. Water is a key component of the water–food–energy relationship and the foundation for the sustainable development of agriculture and society. Agricultural wetlands play a crucial role in regulating water resources and supporting biodiversity and also providing important ecosystem services such as nutrient cycling and carbon sequestration. However, human activities have disrupted the water cycle and its related functions, leading to problems such as water scarcity, water pollution, and wetland degradation. Therefore, this article analyzes and discusses the utilization and landscape design of agricultural wetlands in the water–food–energy relationship, with a focus on a water-centric approach.

The protection and utilization of wetlands are an important part of building a modern green ecosystem. Jia proposed the utilization of renewable agricultural biomass in constructed wetlands and explored the feasibility of using typical agricultural waste such as wheat straw, apricot kernels, and walnut shells as carbon sources for nitrogen removal in constructed wetlands (Jia et al. 2019). Wondie proposed that although wetlands provided important ecological services, people had less understanding of the ecosystem components of wetlands. Many wetlands were seriously degraded, wasting valuable resources. The range of plant species diversity in damaged wetlands was related to the degree of disturbance. Compared with the original wetlands, urban and agricultural wetlands were highly degraded, and wetland protection was imminent (Wondie 2018). Eid believed that human intervention led to the drying up of lakes. Therefore, he proposed the need to pay attention to protecting the remaining wetland resources in order to achieve sustainable utilization for the next generation (Eid et al. 2020). Maithya pointed out that a wetland is an important ecosystem for human health, happiness, and ecological integrity. It is necessary to strengthen the sustainable utilization of wetland resources and slow down wetland degradation (Maithya et al. 2020). Menbere proposed to strengthen the role of wetlands in ecotourism and biodiversity and to develop a sustainable form of wetland resource utilization that combines wetlands with ecotourism (Menbere & Menbere 2018). Asomani-Boateng believed that people's awareness of the importance of wetlands was constantly increasing, in order to participate more actively and directly in the development and implementation of wetland management plans (Asomani-Boateng 2019). Wildayana, through an in-depth understanding of wetland utilization and management and intensive field investigations using quantitative and qualitative methods, concluded that not all wetlands were suitable for planting food crops. If they were not suitable for food crops and still grow them, wetland degradation and cultivation costs would be very high (Wildayana & Armanto 2018). These researchers conducted a detailed analysis of the utilization and management of wetlands and pointed out the importance of wetlands.

Landscape design is becoming increasingly important in modern society, and research on landscape design is also hot. Xie analyzed the key needs of modern residents for landscape design through a questionnaire survey. Most people believed that ‘ecological principles’ were the primary needs, and residents attached the most importance to reducing impacts; improving the environment, characteristics, and environmental trends; and supporting greening (Xie 2019). Kurtaslan believed that ecological landscape design needs to consider aspects such as water-saving and energy-saving landscapes, sustainable agricultural practices, permanent cultivation, and green roof and wall applications (Kurtaslan 2020). Raaphorst believed that visual landscape design representation facilitated communication and knowledge exchange in participatory planning and design processes (Raaphorst et al. 2019). Xu believed that landscape design culture was the soul and support of tourist areas. By presenting different cultural characteristics and improving cultural taste and content, the practical significance of tourism landscape design could be achieved (Xu 2019). Field proposed an ecosystem model to simulate various scenarios of switchgrass planting in the heterogeneous landscape around the cellulose ethanol biological refinery, proving that the existing subsidies for switchgrass planting in the landscape might achieve suboptimal greenhouse gas mitigation (Field et al. 2018). These scholars have discussed the needs, significance, and objectives of landscape design, but there are few applications of landscape design in wetlands.

With the increase in global population and economic development, the contradiction between supply and demand of food, water resources, and energy is becoming increasingly prominent, especially the problem of water shortage has become a global problem. At the same time, wetland ecosystems, as one of the most diverse ecosystems on Earth, play an important role in maintaining the global water cycle and biodiversity. However, the imbalance in the water–food–energy relationship has led to challenges and issues in the utilization and management of agricultural wetlands, including land use changes, wetland degradation, and inappropriate agricultural practices (Wu et al. 2023). Therefore, this article attempts to explore the utilization and landscape design of agricultural wetlands in the context of the water–valley–energy relationship, aiming to provide insights for optimizing sustainable and effective strategies of agricultural wetlands while enhancing their ecological and aesthetic value, and addressing issues such as water scarcity, water pollution, and wetland degradation.

On a global scale, food production accounts for approximately 70% of global water extraction and 90% of water consumption; energy production and power generation account for approximately 15% of global water extraction. Approximately 30% of global energy consumption is used for food production and its supply chain, while 8% is used for water intake and transportation, as well as sewage treatment. Water-centered agricultural wetland utilization refers to the use of wetlands as a part of the agricultural production system, based on the ecological functions of water, to cultivate crops, raise aquatic products, and livestock and poultry in wetlands, so as to meet human needs for food and ecological services (Kitouni et al. 2018). It is different from the traditional agricultural production mode. Traditional agriculture mainly improves the yield through land reclamation, water and soil conservation, weeding, fertilization, irrigation, and other methods, while water-centered agricultural wetland utilization is based on the premise of protecting and repairing the natural ecological functions of the wetland ecosystem to achieve efficient and sustainable agricultural production (Kesikoglu et al. 2019). At the same time, the utilization of agricultural wetlands can also provide many ecological services, such as water quality purification, climate regulation, and biodiversity protection, which help to achieve ecological civilization construction and sustainable development.

Water resource is one of the key factors to maintain life and development, and it has irreplaceable importance in agricultural production. Agriculture relies on water to nourish crops, maintain the survival of livestock, and support all links in the agricultural production chain. Grain, as the basic survival demand of human beings, needs an appropriate amount of water resources to realize the growth and harvest of crops. Energy plays an important role in agricultural production, such as irrigation, mechanization, and grain processing.

When it comes to agricultural wetland utilization, water management is essential. In agricultural wetlands, the goal of water management is to ensure the best use of water resources while minimizing water waste and pollution (Hosen et al. 2018). Specifically, water management can be achieved through a variety of methods. For example, establishing an irrigation system can help crops in agricultural wetlands obtain the required amount of water during dry seasons. For pollutants and wastewater in wetlands, water management can purify and treat this water by building facilities such as wetland filtration systems and ecological cleaning pools (Marconi 2022). In addition, water management can also improve wetland productivity and ecosystem health through wetland ecological restoration and protection (Kim 2023).

Agricultural wetland is an important part of the relationship between water, food, and energy, which provides a series of ecological functions and services to support natural and human systems.

Therefore, water management plays an extremely important role in the sustainable use of agricultural wetlands. Only through scientific and reasonable water resource management can the ecological, economic, and social value of wetlands be maximized, thus achieving the goals of sustainable agricultural development and ecological civilization construction.

The utilization of agricultural wetlands centered around water also faces some challenges. First, due to human activities and climate change, the supply and quality of water resources have been affected, which has brought certain difficulties to the utilization of agricultural wetlands. Second, the management and maintenance of agricultural wetlands require a significant investment of human and material resources. Especially in harsh weather and geographical conditions, the difficulty is even greater. Finally, due to policy and socioeconomic constraints, the water-centered approach to agricultural wetland utilization also has certain limitations in practice. To overcome these challenges, innovative technologies and effective policy measures are essential.

Water is an indispensable element in wetlands, and the ecosystem of wetlands needs a lot of water to maintain its life activities. Good water management is helpful in controlling the water quantity and quality of agricultural wetlands and ensuring the rational utilization and protection of wetland water resources.

The reasons for water scarcity in agricultural wetlands can be multifaceted, including natural and human factors. Natural factors include climate change, insufficient rainfall, etc. (Moomaw et al. 2018); human factors include excessive cultivation, improper water resource management, etc. Whether natural or human factors, water scarcity can have a series of impacts on agricultural wetlands. First, water scarcity can have a direct impact on the growth of crops, leading to crop yield reduction or death. Second, water scarcity can dry the soil, making it prone to crust or cracking, thereby reducing soil fertility and water retention capacity. In addition, water scarcity can also affect the balance of wetland ecosystems, leading to a decrease in biodiversity and affecting the ecological functions of wetlands. Finally, water scarcity can also affect human production and life, limiting the development of the local economy.

Therefore, in order to protect agricultural wetlands and promote their sustainable use, measures need to be taken to alleviate the problem of water resource shortage. This includes establishing an effective water resource management system, promoting water resource conservation technologies, and strengthening water resource monitoring (Baulch et al. 2019).

Water pollution in agricultural wetlands is a serious environmental problem. This is mainly because chemical substances such as fertilizers and pesticides used in agricultural production would enter wetlands with water flow, polluting the wetland water body; organic substances such as feces and feed residues during the production process of aquaculture, as well as drug residues such as antibiotics added to feed, can also enter wetland water bodies, affecting water quality; and industrial wastewater discharge and incomplete urban sewage treatment can also have a negative impact on the water quality of agricultural wetlands. The impact of water pollution in agricultural wetlands is mainly manifested in the following aspects: (1) Impact on the ecological environment: water pollution can lead to the destruction of wetland ecosystems, decreased biodiversity, reduced wetland vegetation, and even the collapse of wetland ecosystems. (2) Impact on human health: polluted wetland water bodies may become a source of drinking water for humans. Drinking contaminated water would pose a threat to human health. (3) Impact on agricultural production: water pollution can cause crop growth to be hindered or even killed, affecting agricultural yield and quality.

Therefore, in the utilization of agricultural wetlands, measures need to be taken to prevent water pollution, including strengthening the management of chemicals such as pesticides and fertilizers, controlling the discharge of waste from the aquaculture industry, and strengthening the control of industrial wastewater discharge. In addition, it is also necessary to strengthen water quality monitoring and management, promptly address discovered water pollution issues, and protect the ecological environment and human health of agricultural wetlands.

The degradation of agricultural wetlands refers to the gradual deterioration and destruction of wetland ecosystems. This is usually caused by natural factors and human activities. The reasons for the degradation of agricultural wetlands include the following: aquaculture and agricultural activities in wetlands may lead to pesticide, fertilizer, and wastewater pollution, thereby damaging the wetland ecosystem; natural disasters, such as droughts, floods, and typhoons, can also affect the ecosystem of agricultural wetlands; human activities, such as urbanization, industrialization, and construction, can damage the ecosystem of wetlands. The impact of agricultural wetland degradation includes the following: loss of ecosystems: wetland degradation can lead to the loss of many animal and plant species, disrupting the balance of wetland ecosystems; land quality decline: degraded wetland land may become barren and unable to support the growth of crops and vegetation, resulting in a decrease in land quality; and loss of water resources: wetland degradation may lead to loss and pollution of water resources, thereby affecting the utilization of water resources in surrounding areas.

A sustainable and integrated water management strategy is the key to ensure the sustainable use of agricultural wetlands. The core of this strategy is to maximize the satisfaction of human needs while protecting the health of ecosystems (Schummer et al. 2021). This comprehensive management strategy requires a comprehensive approach to policy formulation, planning, and implementation to ensure the sustainable use and management of water. Sustainable water management also needs to ensure its sustainability through the management and protection of water resources. Only by implementing comprehensive water resource management can water resources be protected and reasonably utilized to meet existing and future needs while also protecting ecosystems and human society. In order to prevent the degradation of agricultural wetlands, effective measures need to be taken, such as wetland restoration, ecological agriculture, and sustainable agriculture. At the same time, the government and society need to strengthen the protection and management of agricultural wetlands and promote the sustainable utilization of agricultural wetlands.

Improving water efficiency is an important way to optimize water use in agricultural wetlands and promote water conservation in agricultural wetlands. If appropriate agricultural crops are selected, drought and waterlogging-tolerant crops are planted, or crops with less irrigation technology are selected, the demand for agricultural wetland water can be reduced and water efficiency can be improved; adopting advanced irrigation technology: traditional irrigation methods have low efficiency and wastewater resources. Modern irrigation techniques, such as drip irrigation, sprinkler irrigation, and micro-irrigation, can enable more precise control of water flow, thereby achieving the goal of water conservation; promotion of renewable water use technology: renewable water use technology can treat wastewater and reuse it for irrigation, thereby improving the efficiency of agricultural wetland water use and reducing the demand for freshwater resources. It can be seen that improving water efficiency is a necessary measure to optimize water use in agricultural wetlands and promote water conservation in agricultural wetlands.

This article used the projection pursuit (PP) model to evaluate water resource utilization efficiency. First, following the principles of scientificity, operability, and quantification, 10 indicators were selected from four aspects – comprehensive water use, agricultural water use, living water use, and ecological water use – to construct an evaluation index system for wetland water resource utilization efficiency, as shown in Table 1.

Table 1

Evaluation indicators for wetland water resource utilization efficiency

Target .	Subset .	Index .	Characterization .
Evaluation of water resource utilization efficiency	Comprehensive water use	Per capita water resources	‘ + ’ indicates the rationality of water resource development and utilization in wetlands during the statistical period
		Per capita comprehensive water consumption	‘ + ’ indicates the degree of wetland water resource utilization during the statistical period
		Water resource development and utilization rate	‘ − ’indicates the relative degree of wetland water resource development and utilization during the statistical period
	Agricultural water	Agricultural water usage ratio	‘ − ’ indicates that the smaller the proportion of wetland agricultural water consumption during the statistical period, the higher the efficiency of water resource utilization
		Average water consumption per mu	‘ − ’indicates the level of agricultural water use in wetlands during the statistical period
		Effective irrigation rate	‘ + ’indicates the level of water conservation in wetland agriculture during the statistical period
	Living water	Per capita water consumption of wetland residents	‘ + ’ represents the water use level of wetland residents during the statistical period
		Proportion of living water used by residents	‘ + ’indicates the level of living water guarantee for wetland residents during the statistical period
	Ecological water use	Proportion of ecological and environmental water use	‘ + ’ indicates the degree of water guarantee for the wetland ecological environment during the statistical period
		Wetland sewage treatment rate	‘ + ’ indicates the level of wetland sewage treatment during the statistical period

Target .	Subset .	Index .	Characterization .
Evaluation of water resource utilization efficiency	Comprehensive water use	Per capita water resources	‘ + ’ indicates the rationality of water resource development and utilization in wetlands during the statistical period
		Per capita comprehensive water consumption	‘ + ’ indicates the degree of wetland water resource utilization during the statistical period
		Water resource development and utilization rate	‘ − ’indicates the relative degree of wetland water resource development and utilization during the statistical period
	Agricultural water	Agricultural water usage ratio	‘ − ’ indicates that the smaller the proportion of wetland agricultural water consumption during the statistical period, the higher the efficiency of water resource utilization
		Average water consumption per mu	‘ − ’indicates the level of agricultural water use in wetlands during the statistical period
		Effective irrigation rate	‘ + ’indicates the level of water conservation in wetland agriculture during the statistical period
	Living water	Per capita water consumption of wetland residents	‘ + ’ represents the water use level of wetland residents during the statistical period
		Proportion of living water used by residents	‘ + ’indicates the level of living water guarantee for wetland residents during the statistical period
	Ecological water use	Proportion of ecological and environmental water use	‘ + ’ indicates the degree of water guarantee for the wetland ecological environment during the statistical period
		Wetland sewage treatment rate	‘ + ’ indicates the level of wetland sewage treatment during the statistical period

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In the equation, is the normalized sequence of indicator eigenvalues, and and are the maximum and minimum values of the qth indicator value, respectively.

In the formula, is the standard deviation of the projection value ⁠, and is the local density of the projection value ⁠.

Finally, the projection value is calculated. The optimal projection direction a is substituted into Equation (2) to obtain a projection value of ⁠.

To optimize water use in agricultural wetlands and promote water conservation in agricultural wetlands, the following strategies can be adopted: (1) Improving water efficiency: there are often problems such as non-standard water use and waste in agricultural wetlands. (2) Developing water-saving irrigation technology: traditional irrigation methods often face problems such as high water consumption and uneven water use, which can easily lead to waste and soil salinization. Therefore, it is necessary to vigorously promote water-saving irrigation technologies, such as well irrigation, micro-irrigation, drip irrigation, and pipeline irrigation, which can reduce water use while improving crop yield and quality. (3) Promoting ecological agriculture: ecological agriculture is a sustainable agricultural production method that can effectively save water resources. By promoting sustainable agricultural production methods such as organic agriculture and ecological agriculture, reducing the use of fertilizers and pesticides, and strengthening soil protection, soil water retention capacity can be improved, and the water consumption for agricultural irrigation can be reduced.

In terms of water management, it is very important to integrate traditional ecological knowledge and modern scientific methods. Modern scientific methods provide more scientific theories and technologies that can better monitor and evaluate the use and protection of water resources.

Integrating traditional ecological knowledge and modern scientific methods can promote the sustainable use and protection of water resources. Traditional ecological knowledge can help people better understand and utilize water resources while also protecting ecosystems and biodiversity. Modern scientific methods can provide more accurate data and technology, thus helping people better understand the use of water resources and also helping people better evaluate and predict the supply and demand of water resources. This requires cooperation and coordination between the government, research institutions, enterprises, and local communities to jointly promote the sustainable use and protection of water resources. To achieve the goal of water-saving and ensure the sustainable utilization and protection of water resources, it requires close cooperation and coordination among the government, research institutions, enterprises, and local communities. When formulating relevant policies, the government should consider the sustainable utilization of water resources and formulate and implement laws and regulations on agricultural wetland management, water resources protection, and water-saving. The government can also ensure that all parties abide by relevant laws and regulations through the supervision mechanism to ensure the rational use of water resources.

The landscape design of agricultural wetlands centered on water should make reasonable use of water resources in agricultural wetlands to maximize their effectiveness and achieve water conservation. At the same time, it is necessary to shoulder the responsibility of integrating nature and humanity and enhance ecological functions, such as fully integrating natural and cultural elements to create landscapes that are not only in line with human aesthetics but also able to adapt to the natural environment; emphasis needs to be placed on enhancing the ecological function of agricultural wetlands, such as increasing wetland vegetation and protecting biodiversity. It is also necessary to emphasize the characteristics of the site and strengthen interactivity, such as fully considering the terrain, climate, and land use history of the site, to make the design more in line with local cultural and environmental characteristics; it is necessary to strengthen the interaction between people and water, so that tourists can experience the beauty and wonder of water in the landscape and enhance people's awareness of water resource protection.

It is very important to incorporate water resource protection and management principles into the agricultural wetland landscape design process, which helps to ensure the sustainability of the design scheme while protecting and improving the water resources of the wetland ecosystem. The method of incorporating water resource protection and management principles into the design process is shown in Table 2.

It is important to enhance biodiversity and cultural value in agricultural wetland landscape design. Therefore, in the design, consideration should be given to how to protect and enhance the biodiversity and cultural value of agricultural wetlands. On the one hand, protecting and enhancing the biodiversity of agricultural wetlands can promote the stability and sustainability of ecosystems. In landscape design, measures such as preserving natural vegetation and habitats in wetlands, strengthening the protection and introduction of rare and endangered species, and controlling the damage of agricultural activities to the wetland ecological environment can be taken to enhance biodiversity. These measures help to protect the natural ecosystem and biodiversity of agricultural wetlands and enhance their sustainability and resilience. On the other hand, agricultural wetlands also have a long-standing cultural heritage value.

Therefore, enhancing the biodiversity and cultural value of agricultural wetlands is of great significance in landscape design, which not only helps to protect ecosystems and traditional cultural heritage but also enhances the sustainability and resilience of agricultural wetlands.

The construction of cities has brought tremendous changes to wetlands. Due to the influence of human activities, the types of wetland land use are constantly changing. The land of Xixi Wetland was analyzed based on changes in utilization types. As shown in Table 3, the changes in the area of various land use types in the Xixi Wetland over the past 30 years could be observed. Among them, vegetation and building area significantly increased, while cultivated land and pond area decreased to varying degrees. This change could reflect the impact of human activities on wetland ecosystems.

Human activities and agricultural production have seriously disrupted the ecological balance of wetlands, causing serious pollution of land and wetland water resources. This article selects the Xixi Wetland in Hangzhou as a sample and selects different locations such as farmland, forest land, ponds, and grasslands for soil quality and water quality testing (rivers and pond water near farmland, forest land, and grassland are selected for water quality testing). Among them, soil quality is evaluated from dimensions such as soil moisture content, soil pollution level, and pH value (hydrogen ion concentration). The degree of soil pollution mainly focuses on the content of heavy metals, pesticide residues, and organic toxins in the soil. The rating index ranged from 1 to 10. The higher the index, the higher the degree of pollution; the water quality rating was evaluated from dimensions such as water pollution degree and pH value, with a focus on indicators such as chromaticity, turbidity, and total bacterial count. The rating index ranged from 1 to 10. The higher the index, the higher the degree of pollution. As shown in Table 4, it could be seen that agricultural production would exacerbate the pollution level of wetland soil and water quality.

Due to extensive human activities, the number of animals and plants in the Xixi Wetland decreased for a time. It was not until people realized the importance of wetland ecology and implemented a series of protection measures that the Xixi Wetland gradually regained its current vitality. As of December 2021, there are numerous rare species in the Xixi Wetland. Among them, there were three national first-level key protected plants and six national second-level key protected plants. There were two species of national first-level key protected animals and 23 species of national second-level key protected animals. The specific names and images of the first-level key protected animals and plants are shown in Table 5. Meanwhile, the number of vascular plants in the Xixi Wetland increased from 221 in 2005 to 711, and the number of insects increased from 477 to 898. The number of bird species increased from 79 to 193, with 56 species of fish, 10 species of amphibians, 15 species of reptiles, and 15 species of mammals.

Table 5

National level 1 key protected animals and plants

Protection level .	Animal and plant names .	Animal and plant pictures .
National first-class key protected plants	Isoetes sinensis Palmer
	Ranalisma rostratum Stapf
	Carpinus putoensis Cheng
National first-class key protected animals	Haliaeetus albicilla
	Ciconia boyciana

Protection level .	Animal and plant names .	Animal and plant pictures .
National first-class key protected plants	Isoetes sinensis Palmer
	Ranalisma rostratum Stapf
	Carpinus putoensis Cheng
National first-class key protected animals	Haliaeetus albicilla
	Ciconia boyciana

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The historical heritage of the Xixi Wetland is profound, with rich humanistic and folk cultures. Therefore, the landscape design of the Xixi Wetland also reflects cultural heritage everywhere. The types of landscape design and resources are relatively complete and diverse. The types of landscape design and resources are relatively complete and diverse. The Xixi Wetland has abundant resources in terms of architecture and facilities, with natural and cultural resources complementing each other. The quantity and proportion of various landscapes are shown in Table 6.

This paper discusses issues related to agricultural wetland utilization and landscape design under the water–food–energy relationship. Water-centered agricultural wetland utilization emphasizes the rational use and regulation of water resources, and the coordination between agricultural production and water resources is achieved by means of irrigation systems and wetland restoration. However, water resource management in agricultural wetlands faces challenges, such as overexploitation of water resources and water pollution. To address these issues, optimizing water use and water conservation have become key strategies, such as promoting efficient water-saving irrigation technologies and rationally adjusting irrigation volumes. In addition, water-centered agricultural wetland landscape design needs to give full consideration to the protection and utilization of water resources, focusing on the integrity and diversity of the wetland ecosystem in order to enhance the aesthetic value and sustainability of the landscape.

This article explored the utilization and landscape design of agricultural wetlands in the water–grain–energy relationship, emphasizing the importance of a water-centered approach. This paper first discussed the concept of water-centered agricultural wetland utilization, challenges, and problems faced by agricultural wetland water management and put forward strategies for optimizing water use and promoting water conservation. The characteristics and requirements of water-centered agricultural wetland landscape design were also analyzed, and the importance of incorporating water resource protection and management principles into the design process was emphasized. This article aimed to gain a deeper understanding of sustainable and effective strategies for utilizing agricultural wetlands centered around water; promoting ecological, cultural, and aesthetic values; and enhancing the sustainability and resilience of landscapes. In summary, water-centered agricultural wetland landscape design can effectively promote sustainability and ecological resilience. In the design process, it is necessary to fully consider the principles of water resource protection and management and integrate traditional ecological knowledge and modern scientific methods, so as to improve water efficiency, develop water-saving irrigation technology, and promote ecological agriculture. At the same time, enhancing biodiversity and cultural value is also a very important factor.

This work was supported by An Analysis of Rural Revitalization Strategy under the Background of ‘Integration of Ecology, Production, Life’.

All relevant data are included in the paper or its Supplementary Information.

The authors declare there is no conflict.