Spatio-temporal patterns of groundwater level changes in southwestern Indian Punjab

Groundwater is a crucial water supply source, particularly in rural areas worldwide (Nas & Berktay 2010; Verma et al. 2023). It serves various purposes such as drinking water, irrigation, and supporting ecosystems (Bhattacharya & Bose 2023). India's heavy reliance on groundwater makes it the highest user globally, with an estimated usage of 251 bcm (Khara & Ghuman 2023). The major sectors utilizing groundwater in India include drinking, domestic, irrigation, and industrial purposes (Sajil Kumar et al. 2020), with irrigation accounting for 90% of the usage across all sectors (Chindarkar & Grafton 2019). However, the excessive and continuous exploitation of groundwater resources has led to the depletion of crucial aquifers in India (Shah 2005), with northern states being classified as critical or overexploited, whereas a rising trend is seen in southern states of India (Kumar 2022).

Punjab has made significant contributions to the country's food security. However, despite the initial success, the sustainability of agricultural production and natural resources in Punjab is threatened due to land degradation (Kaur et al. 2010; Sidhu et al. 2010; John & Babu 2021). Water is a critical input for crop production, and Punjab has witnessed overexploitation of groundwater due to inefficient canal irrigation systems and government policies promoting private investment in groundwater extraction (Sarkar 2011; Pandey 2016; Khara & Ghuman 2023). The withdrawal of groundwater in Punjab exceeds the sustainable limit by 72%, facilitated by subsidized credit availability and additional support from the free power supply (Srivastava et al. 2015; Sidhu & Chopra 2022). Depleting groundwater resources disrupts ecological balance, imposes financial burdens on farmers, and contributes to socio-economic inequality (Sarkar 2011).

The decline in the water table in the Punjab state has led to a rise in energy consumption for lifting groundwater, subsequently increasing the cost of pumping groundwater. This trend may impact the socio-economic conditions of small farmers in the state in the future. Additionally, the southwestern part of Punjab is grappling with a fluctuating water table issue, waterlogging causing the accumulation of salt in the soil profile (Brar et al. 2016). Thus, there is an urgent need to examine the most significant spatial and temporal variations in groundwater levels (Singh & Kasana 2017). Efforts should be made to enhance the efficient utilization of groundwater and manage its consequences. Measures, such as regulating energy supply and pricing, are suggested to effectively manage groundwater resources (Ghosh et al. 2014; Sarkar & Das 2014; Srivastava et al. 2017). It is imperative to investigate the behavior of the groundwater level at a micro-level (Brar et al. 2016). This investigation aims to provide a more comprehensive understanding of the groundwater system's characteristics, enabling efficient utilization of this resource. The ultimate goal is to ensure long-term sustainability in agriculture, contributing to the overall food security of the country and, specifically, the southwestern part of Punjab state (Singh & Kasana 2017).

The importance of measuring groundwater levels is crucial for various hydrological investigations and understanding their variation over time to assess hydrogeological conditions, develop groundwater models, and suggest management practices (Harun et al. 2016). Long-term groundwater level monitoring is crucial for studying fluctuation, estimating recharge, assessing groundwater quality, and modeling interactions between surface water and groundwater (Panda et al. 2007; Tedd et al. 2012; Chandra et al. 2015; Cai & Ofterdinger 2016; Machiwal et al. 2021). Measuring groundwater levels holds importance in hydrological investigations, playing a crucial role in understanding temporal variations, evaluating hydrogeological conditions, aiding in the creation of precise groundwater models, and formulating effective management practices. The key challenge faced by researchers and practitioners in this field pertains to ensuring the precision and consistency of data. Achieving precise depictions of groundwater levels over time remains a challenge, requiring advancements in data collection methods and modeling techniques to enhance the reliability of groundwater models.

The use of geographical information systems (GIS) has proven effective in interpreting and visualizing spatial data related to water resources management. GIS methods, such as inverse distance weighting (Gambolati & Volpi 1979) and kriging (Reed et al. 2000; Troisi et al. 2000; Desbarats et al. 2002), can be utilized to create groundwater level maps by measurements that accurately represent the spatial distribution of the available data (Buchanan & Triantafilis 2009). By creating groundwater level change maps using GIS, the behavior of the groundwater system is visualized in a context that is easy for many people to understand. In recent years, the use of GIS has grown rapidly in groundwater assessment and management researches.

Numerous studies have effectively employed GIS to map groundwater level fluctuations in diverse regions (Chandra et al. 2015; Tiwari et al. 2016; Singh & Kasana 2017; Anand et al. 2020; Sajil Kumar et al. 2020). These investigations extend globally, with a focus on determining groundwater depth (Troch et al. 1993; Aslan & Gundogdu 2007; Castano et al. 2012). In the context of India, successful GIS applications in hydrogeology have been pioneered by researchers such as Biswas (2009), Shankar et al. (2010), Kaur et al. (2011), Nayak et al. (2015), Brar et al. (2016), and Kumar (2022) showcasing the utility of GIS in comprehensively understanding groundwater resource dynamics.

Spatial maps depicting groundwater depth are frequently employed in environmental decision-making processes, including the identification of suitable locations for implementing immediate measures (Ofosu et al. 2014). With the above background, this study attempts to assess the long-term groundwater behavior of the southwestern districts of Punjab using GIS to visually and spatially analyze water level data obtained from state and central agencies. The goal is to identify spatial locations with the greatest fluctuations of this precious resource to provide valuable insights for future groundwater management in the region. This understanding is crucial for the sustainable utilization of groundwater in agriculture on a long-term basis (Brar et al. 2016). The findings of this study will aid policymakers, irrigation engineers, and farmers in recognizing the spatial condition and behavior of groundwater.

Combined hydrogeological expertise with cutting-edge GIS mapping techniques unravel the intricate tapestry of groundwater dynamics in the agriculturally dominant region of southwestern Punjab. Over the span of 48 years, this pioneering study employed GIS-based geostatistical modeling to meticulously analyze and depict the depth of the water level and water-level fluctuations. The GIS-based geostatistical modeling approach emerges as a powerful tool in this, providing a holistic and real-time understanding of the aquifer's dynamics, as such a study had not been done earlier in this area. This research focuses on the creation of detailed maps that serve as a window into the aquifer's behavior, unveiling the spatial and temporal distribution of various groundwater table depth classes. This comprehensive approach aims not only to understand the current state of groundwater in the region but also to predict and manage future scenarios effectively. The southwestern districts of Punjab, a region where agriculture plays a pivotal role, have been grappling with the challenges posed by water scarcity, waterlogging, and the delicate balance of groundwater resources. The dynamic representations of how groundwater levels have evolved over the years are crucial for informed decision-making and sustainable water management practices, as well as maintaining a delicate balance between agricultural needs and environmental sustainability. The outcomes of this study go beyond academic significance; they carry practical implications for the sustainable future of the region. This research is not just a scientific novelty but a blueprint for responsible resource management. It invites us to rethink our approach to water resources, urging a shift from reactive measures to proactive, data-driven strategies.

The spatial and temporal distribution of different groundwater level depth classes was computed using GIS of the southwestern Punjab region over 48 years.

The area is irrigated by the Sirhind canal, Firozpur feeder, and Eastern main canal. There are a number of isolated sand dunes of varying dimensions and the dominant soil types are sierozem and desert soils. Lithologically, the area is a part of the vast Indo-Gangetic alluvial plain, which consists of alternate bands of sand, silt, and clay with pebbles. Sandy plains, sand dunes, and topographic depressions are the common landforms.

Parts of the southwestern districts have been facing the problem of waterlogging and salinity for the last two decades. The area is nearly level and devoid of natural streams or gravity outlets, causing waterlogging, salinity, and other problems.

Spatial interpolation techniques in ArcGIS 10.8 were used to generate groundwater surfaces for different years by determining the depths of the groundwater level during both pre and post-monsoon periods. The kriging interpolation method was employed to interpolate the raster surface within the geostatistical tool in ArcGIS (Dhaloiya et al. 2022). This method is employed to generate maps illustrating groundwater level surfaces. Kriging, also known as partial spatial estimation or interpolation, stands out as the optimal linear unbiased method for estimating the value of regionalized variables at unsampled locations, leveraging available data. The utilization of the default spherical semi-variogram model enhances the accuracy of the interpolation for the raster surface based on the existing data points. This approach is particularly favored for non-stationary variables in the study area (Kumar 2007), delivering superior results. Afterward, the resulting interpolated groundwater level map was classified into distinct categories based on groundwater level depths. The classification was based on specific criteria: areas with groundwater level depths less than 1.5 m were labeled as waterlogged, depths ranging from 1.5 to 3 m were categorized as potential waterlogged, depths between 3 and 10 m were considered safe, depths spanning from 10 to 20 m were designated as critical, and depths exceeding 20 m were identified as overexploited (Kaur et al. 2011).

In the Bathinda district during the pre-monsoon season, no specific region exhibits waterlogging, and the presence of potential waterlogging was initially documented at 0.27% in 1981. Subsequently, it exhibited an increasing trend of 0.48% until the year 2000, after which no further reports were made regarding its occurrence. The maximum extent of areas considered safe was reported as 94.97% in 2000, whereas the highest concentration of critically exploited areas was identified as 49.02% in 2010. The area experiencing overexploitation was reported in 1973, accounting for 32% of the total area. Over the years, this figure gradually decreased; however, in 2010, there was a resurgence of overexploited areas, reaching a maximum of 32.75% in the year 2020 (Table 1).

During the pre-monsoon season of 1973, the Faridkot district reported waterlogged and potentially waterlogged areas, accounting for 0.03 and 29.29%, respectively. Over the following years, the waterlogged area saw a steady increase of 13.73% until 1981, with no subsequent reports on its occurrence. Conversely, the potential waterlogged area reached its peak in 1981 at 53.20% and gradually declined until 2010, reaching 0.78%. In 1973, the safe area for groundwater exploitation was measured at 63.37%, but by 1981, it had decreased, transforming into a potential waterlogged area. From there, it experienced a continuous rise, reaching its maximum value of 92.97% in 2000, before exhibiting a downward trend and ultimately being classified as critically exploited. In 2020, the initially reported overexploited area stood at 4.03%.

The safe area for groundwater exploitation in the Fazilka district was measured at 39.27% in 1973. It exhibited a rising trend and reached its peak at 91.7% in 2000, followed by a subsequent decrease. The critical exploited area reached its maximum at 34.97%, while the overexploited groundwater area peaked at 16% in the year 1973. Following this, a decreasing trend was observed, with the critical exploited area decreasing to 17.42% by 2020. The overexploited area was recorded at 0.71% until 1981, after which no further reports were made regarding its occurrence. The waterlogged area displayed an increasing trend, followed by a decreasing trend after 2000, which transitioned into a potential waterlogged area. In 1973, the potential waterlogged area was reported as 9.13%. It gradually decreased until 2010, reaching 2.60%, but thereafter, an increasing trend was observed, eventually reaching its maximum at 32.51% in 2020.

The critically exploited area in Ferozepur was initially measured at 0.41% in 1991, and by 2020, it had increased by 77.32%, which is the highest among all other districts. The waterlogged area demonstrated an increasing trend until 1981, reaching a peak of 4.23%. Subsequently, it experienced a decreasing trend, reaching 0.17% in 1991. During this period, the potential waterlogged area showed an increasing trend until 1981, reaching its maximum value of 74.82%. However, in the following years, it steadily decreased and reached 0.02% in 2020. The safe area for groundwater exploitation initially expanded from 54.02% in 1973 to 99% in 2010. However, after 2010, it began to decline and reached 22.66% in 2020. This decreasing trend in the safe area, coupled with the shift from potential waterlogged and safe areas to critically exploited areas after 2010, indicates an alarming condition for the groundwater situation.

The overexploited area in the Mansa district was measured at 1.33% in 1973. However, no area was reported in the following years. Then, in 2020, the maximum area of 15.75% was detected as overexploited. The critically exploited area was measured at 19.28% in 1973. Subsequently, it showed a decreasing trend until 2010, however, in 2010, it began increasing again and reached its maximum value of 54.92% in 2020. The data reveal that two-thirds of the area falls under critically and overexploited categories, which highlights a worrisome condition for the groundwater situation. The safe area reported to be 69.1% in 1973 and showed an increasing trend until 1991 with a maximum area of 91.43%. Following this, a decreasing trend was observed, with the safe area decreasing to 29.31% by 2020. The waterlogged area was measured at 0.83% in 1981 and subsequently decreased to 0.55% in 1991, after that, no further reports were made regarding its occurrence. An increasing trend of potential waterlogged areas was observed from 1973 to 1981, with percentages of 10.28 and 22.08, respectively. This was followed by a decreasing trend after 1981, which transitioned into a safe area.

In the year 1973, the maximum overexploited area was reported at 38.56% in the Sri Muktsar Sahib district. Over the years, it gradually decreased and reached 8.03% in 1981. After that, no further reports were made regarding its occurrence. The potential waterlogged area showed an increasing trend from 1973 to 1981, followed by a decreasing trend. The highest area of potential waterlogged was reported in 1981 at 11.50%, while the lowest was recorded at 0.01% in 2020. The critically exploited area displayed a rising trend until 1981, reaching its highest point at 33.46%. Afterward, it underwent a decreasing trend, reaching 1.91% in 2020.

Over the years, the waterlogged, potential waterlogged, critically exploited, and overexploited areas transitioned into safe areas, reaching their maximum value at 83.93 in 2020.

During a pre-monsoon season in the southwestern region of Punjab witnessed a waterlogged area of 0.51% in 1973, subsequently, the waterlogged area reached its peak in 1981 and began to decrease gradually, ultimately reaching its lowest point at 0.01% in 2020 as depicted in Table 2. The potential waterlogged area was observed highest at 25.59% in 1981 and lowest at 8.47% in 2020. Until 2000, the critically exploited area exhibited a decreasing trend, decreasing from 23.85% in 1973 to reaching its lowest point at 1.35%. Similarly, the overexploited area decreased from 17.21% in 1973 to 2.80% in 1981. However, in the subsequent years, both the critically exploited and overexploited areas witnessed a consistent increase, reaching their maximum values of 34.73 and 10.08%, respectively, as recorded in 2020. The safe area increased from 43.51% in 1973 to its highest point of 84.32% in 2000. However, after that, it started to decrease and reached 46.72% in 2020.

In the years 1973, 1981, and 1991, both the waterlogged and potential waterlogged areas exhibited a decreasing trend and transitioned into safe areas. Similarly, the critically exploited and overexploited areas were also converted into safe areas during this period. This indicates a positive development for the region. However, the situation worsened after 2000, with a significant increase in the critically exploited and overexploited areas. These areas expanded at an alarming rate, covering approximately half of the region. This is a highly concerning development for the region.

It has been observed that the waterlogged and potential waterlogged areas in the region have undergone a shifting pattern, moving from Ferozepur to Fazilka through Faridkot and Sri Muktsar Sahib districts over time. In 1973, the highest recorded waterlogged and potential waterlogged area was 45.97% in the Ferozepur district. Subsequently, in 1981, the Faridkot district experienced a significant increase with 66.93% of its area being affected. From 1991 to 2010, approximately half of the area in the Sri Muktsar Sahib district was affected by waterlogging and potential waterlogging issues. However, more recently, the problem has shifted to the Fazilka district, where around one-third of the area has been identified as waterlogged or potentially waterlogged. The maximum recorded affected area was 32.51% in 2020. These findings indicate a dynamic pattern of movement for the waterlogged and potential waterlogged areas, shifting between districts within the region. This emphasizes the necessity for a comprehensive and coordinated approach to address waterlogging issues, considering the changing dynamics and distribution of affected areas. Effective management strategies need to be implemented to mitigate the impact of waterlogging and prevent further expansion into new areas.

The investigation revealed that in 2000, the maximum extent of areas classified as safe was reported to be 97.8% as shown in Table 3. Concurrently, during the post-monsoon season in 1981, the Bathinda district exhibited the highest concentration of critically exploited areas, amounting to 52.66%. The area subject to overexploitation was reported in 1973, accounting for 33.49% of the total area, which progressively diminished and reached 32.09% in 2020. Over the intervening years, there was a gradual decline in this value. However, post-2010, a resurgence of overexploited areas emerged, reaching 27.99% in 2020. Regarding waterlogging, an initial assessment in 1981 indicated its presence at a minimal occurrence of 0.01%. Subsequently, no specific region demonstrated waterlogging. However, the potential area susceptible to waterlogging was documented at 0.42% in 1981. Following this, an increasing trend was observed, a maximum of 0.60% in 2000. However, subsequent reports indicated a decrease in the occurrence, reaching 0.01% until 2010 (Table 3).

During the post-monsoon season of 1973, the Faridkot district recorded waterlogged and potentially waterlogged areas, constituting 21.96 and 30.23% of the district, respectively. Subsequently, the waterlogged area witnessed a consistent increase of 38% until 1981. After 1991, no further reports were made, and the recorded occurrence accounted for 0.10%. Conversely, the potential waterlogged area reached its highest in 1981 at 33.78% and gradually decreased over time, reaching 5.17% in 2010. In 1973, the safe area for groundwater exploitation was measured at 43.39%. However, by 1981, it had diminished and transitioned into a potential waterlogged area. Thereafter, it exhibited a continuous rise, attaining a maximum value of 89.8% in 2000, followed by a subsequent decline, ultimately qualifying as critically exploited. The area classified as critically exploited was reported at 3.88% in 1973. Subsequently, no further measurements were conducted until 2010, at which point 21.13% of the district was identified as critically exploited. Eventually, the percentage reached its peak at 35.31% in 2020. Furthermore, in 2020, the initially reported overexploited area stood at 1.16%.

In 1973, the measured percentages of the critical and overexploited areas were 36.68 and 12.67%, respectively. However, there has been a consistent decrease in the critical exploited area, which reached 9.50% in the Fazilka district by 2020. As for the overexploited area, it was recorded at 0.41% until 1981, but no further reports were made on its occurrence after that time. Initially, the safe area for groundwater exploitation accounted for 31.47% in 1973. It showed an increasing trend and peaked at 91.87% in 2000, but subsequently decreased. The waterlogged area initially decreased, then started increasing after 2010, eventually transitioning into a potential waterlogged area. In 1973, the potential waterlogged area was reported as 13.75%. It gradually increased to 15.88% by 1981 but then began to decline. Ultimately, it reached its maximum at 32.31% in 2020.

Until 2010, the waterlogged area in the Ferozepur district displayed a decreasing trend, reaching its lowest point of 0.02% from 38.64 in 1973. Simultaneously, the potential waterlogged area exhibited an increasing trend until 1981, reaching its highest value of 73.02%. However, in the subsequent years, it steadily decreased and reached 10.59% in 2010. The critically exploited area was initially measured at 0.38% in 1991. By 2020, it had increased by 57.30%, making it the second-highest increase after the Mansa district. Initially, the safe area for groundwater exploitation expanded from 4.09% in 1973 to 91.22% in 1991. However, after 1991, it began to decline and reached 42.69% in 2020. This decreasing trend in the safe area, along with the shift from potential waterlogged and safe areas to critically exploited areas after 1991, highlights a concerning situation for groundwater resources.

The safe area accounted for 56.36% in 1973 and exhibited an increasing trend until 1991, reaching its maximum area of 95.21% in the Mansa district. However, a decreasing trend was observed thereafter, with the safe area decreasing to 33.68% by 2020. The waterlogged area initially measured at 1.89% in 1973 and decreased to 0.04% in 1991. However, it experienced a resurgence and reached its maximum of 2.43% in 2000. From 1973 to 2000, there was a decreasing trend in the potential waterlogged area, with percentages of 24.60 and 16.83, respectively, transitioning into a safe area. In 1973, the overexploited area was measured at 0.95%. However, no further reports were made regarding its occurrence in the following years. Then, in 2020, the maximum area of 7.73% was identified as overexploited. The critically exploited area, initially measured at 16.19% in 1973, showed a decreasing trend until 1991. However, it began increasing again in 2010 and reached its maximum value of 58.58% in 2020. The data reveal that two-thirds of the area falls under the critically and overexploited categories, highlighting a worrisome condition for the groundwater situation.

In the Sri Muktsar Sahib district, the potential waterlogged area showed an increasing trend from 1973 to 2010, followed by a subsequent decreasing trend. The highest reported area of potential waterlogged land was in 2010, accounting for 46.32%, while the lowest was recorded at 0.85% in 2020. The maximum overexploited area was reported at 38.68% in 1973. However, it gradually decreased over the years and reached 6.46% in 1981. No further reports were made regarding its occurrence after that time. The critically exploited area displayed a rising trend until 1981, reaching its peak at 34.21%. Subsequently, it underwent a decreasing trend and reached 1.62% in 2020. Over time, the waterlogged, potential waterlogged, critically exploited, and overexploited areas transitioned into safe areas, reaching their maximum value at 93.97% in 2020.

The potential waterlogged area in post-monsoon season exhibited fluctuations over time, the highest recorded percentage was 22.83 in 1981, while the lowest was observed at 6.56 in 2020 in the southwestern region of Punjab as shown in Table 2. From 1973 to 2000, the critically exploited area showcased a declining trend, decreasing from 22.43% to its lowest point of 0.80% in 2000. Similarly, the overexploited area decreased from 16.86% in 1973 to 1.87% in 1981. However, in the subsequent years, both the critically exploited and overexploited areas experienced consistent increases, reaching their maximum values of 31 and 7.56%, respectively, as recorded in 2020. The safe area in this region expanded from 30.15% in 1973 to its highest level of 81.01% in 2000. However, it started to decline thereafter, reaching 54.53% in 2020. In 1973, the waterlogged area in this region was recorded at 11.03%. Subsequently, it peaked in 1981 and gradually decreased, ultimately reaching its lowest point of 0.34% in 2020, as indicated in Table 2.

A noticeable downward trend was observed in both the waterlogged and potential waterlogged areas, resulting in their conversion into safe areas during the years 1973, 1981, and 1991. Similarly, the critically exploited and overexploited areas also underwent a transition to safe areas during this period. These findings signify a favorable trend in the groundwater conditions of the region. However, the situation took a detrimental turn after 2000, as there was a substantial upsurge in the critically exploited and overexploited areas. These areas experienced rapid expansion, covering approximately 40% of the region. This development is deeply concerning and raises serious concerns about the long-term sustainability of the region's groundwater resources. The findings revealed a dynamic and spatially shifting pattern of waterlogged and potential waterlogged areas within the region, extending from Ferozepur to Fazilka via Faridkot and Sri Muktsar Sahib districts. This dynamic movement highlights the need for a holistic and coordinated approach to addressing waterlogging concerns, considering the evolving dynamics and distribution of affected areas. It is crucial to implement effective management strategies to mitigate the adverse effects of waterlogging and prevent its encroachment into new regions.

The maximum waterlogged area was found to be 97,350, 56,080, 21,730, 52,790, 6,760, and 2,910 ha during 1973 (Faridkot), 1981 (Ferozepur), 1991 (Sri Muktsar Sahib), 2000 (Sri Muktsar Sahib), 2010 (Sri Muktsar Sahib), and 2020 (Fazilka), respectively. However, the waterlogged and potential waterlogging area is being observed in the Fazilka district covering about one-third (32.52%) of the total area during 2020 (Table 1, Figure 7). The problem of waterlogging in this region is due to seepage from the dense canal network, non-withdrawal of poor-quality groundwater, absence of gravity outlet, poor maintenance of drainage system, restricted aquifer depth, soil type and rainfall pattern, subsurface groundwater flow, etc. (Kiran & Singh 2021). These findings indicated a dynamic pattern of movement of waterlogging from northeastern to southwestern districts of this region (Table 1 and Figures 2–7). The seasonal variation in waterlogged and potential waterlogging areas is due to the onset of monsoon rainfall (Figures 8–13). Figures 2–13 show that the waterlogging pattern changes from Ferozepur and Faridkot to Sri Muktsar Sahib and Fazilka districts over the years 1973–2020 due to subsurface flow towards the southwestern part, influenced by elevation difference and aquifer depth. A decreasing trend of waterlogging was observed in southwestern districts of Punjab from 1973, particularly after 2010, a drastic reduction was seen due to various reclamation measures such as subsurface drainage systems, multiple well point systems and farming practices taken by the state and central governments as well as change in rainfall pattern. A similar trend has been observed in southwestern Punjab, particularly the Muktsar district (Chopra 1987; Bhatt et al. 2006; Koshal 2012; Shah 2013; Chopra & Krishan 2014; Krishan & Chopra 2015; Sidhu & Chopra 2022; Singh et al. 2022, 2001, 2015). Moreover, it is further reported by Sekhon et al. (2021) that the maximum extent of waterlogging was found in Bathinda, Mansa, Faridkot, and Muktsar districts during the year 2013, as compared to 2003, 2008, and 2019. This study's findings align with previous studies, which indicated decadal variation in waterlogging.

The study conducted in the southwestern districts of Punjab focused on analyzing the fluctuations of groundwater levels during the pre and post-monsoon periods. The research utilized hydrogeological and GIS mapping techniques to prepare maps indicating the depth of groundwater level and groundwater level fluctuation. The findings revealed that a significant portion of the area experiences groundwater-induced waterlogging and potential waterlogging conditions during the post-monsoon season, with groundwater levels remaining 3 m below the ground surface. The spatial map of groundwater level fluctuation served as a convenient tool for identifying potential zones. The highest levels of overexploited and waterlogging were observed in the northeastern and southwestern parts, respectively, while the central regions exhibited a moderate level of fluctuation. The study's findings determined that 45% of the study area faced the risk of overexploitation, 46% was considered safe, and 9% was either waterlogged or at risk of waterlogging. It was also observed that waterlogging has shifted from the Ferozepur district since 1973 towards the Sri Muktsar Sahib and Fazilka districts in the year 2020. Several factors, including geology, soil characteristics, elevation, and land-use patterns, were identified as major influences on groundwater levels. The outcomes emphasize the importance of conducting regular evaluations to monitor the dynamic changes including waterlogging and groundwater scenarios of southwestern Punjab.

Through implementing a combination of these strategies and policies, the region can work towards sustainable groundwater management, minimize waterlogging issues, and protect the quality of groundwater resources in the long term. Developing a sustainable groundwater management plan involves incorporating practices such as sustainable groundwater use, water conservation, and effective land-use planning, considering seasonal fluctuations. Mitigating waterlogging may require drainage systems, land leveling, and promoting suitable cropping patterns. Aquifer recharge initiatives, including check dams and percolation ponds, aim to replenish groundwater in exploited areas. Enforcing land-use regulations based on geology and soil characteristics prevents overexploitation, while a comprehensive monitoring system controls pumping and prevents saltwater intrusion. Awareness campaigns and community engagement promote sustainable practices. Regular policy reviews, adaptive to hydrogeological studies, ensure effectiveness. Collaboration among agencies, institutions, and communities is crucial for addressing groundwater challenges and achieving long-term sustainability.

The authors extend their sincere appreciation to the Water Resource Department, Punjab, and the Central Ground Water Board, Ministry of Water Resources, for providing the required data for this study. Additionally, they would like to acknowledge the invaluable feedback received from the reviewers, which greatly contributed to improving the technical content of the manuscript.

Data cannot be made publicly available; readers should contact the corresponding author for details.

The authors declare there is no conflict.