Water accounting of groundwater over exploited districts in Haryana and Punjab states to analyse impacts of water conservation measures on water availability

CT

conventional tillage

ZT

zero-till

LLL

laser land levelling

RCTs

resource conservation technologies

RCBD

randomized complete block design

PTR

puddled transplanted rice

DSR

direct-seeded rice

ZTDSR

zero-till direct seeding of rice

LULC

land use and land cover

ET_c

crop evapotranspiration

K_c

crop coefficient

ET_o

reference evapotranspiration

FAO

Food and Agriculture Organization

P_e

green water storage

ABW

available water

AW_sw

available surface water

AW_gw

available ground water

CGWR_use

crop green water use

CBW_use

crop blue water use

GW_abs

groundwater abstractions

D_os

water need for other sectors

NRW

unmet demand

IMD

India Meteorological Department

DIP

district irrigation plan

MCM

million cubic metres

CSA

climate-smart agriculture

CHCs

custom-hiring centres

IWMI

International Water Management Institute

Irrigated agriculture is a crucial component of the food production system, playing a vital role in fulfilling the current and future needs of the ever-increasing population (Rajput et al. 2017; Kushwaha et al. 2022). The world's population is projected to be 9.2 billion by 2050, necessitating increased food and water demand, prompting researchers to achieve higher irrigation efficiency and more production per unit volume of water use (Islam & Karim 2019). To meet our demand for food and fibre production, irrigated agriculture is crucial. The agriculture sector uses the most water around 80% of the total amount used annually in the nation. Irrigation water management promotes water delivery in a quantity that satisfies the needs of the developing plant while avoiding runoff and prolonged soil saturation. Water and energy can be conserved by improving application precision and decreasing unused applications (Rajput et al. 2022). Access to high-quality natural resources like land, water, and air is vital for life. However, overuse and contamination are depleting these resources. Conservation and sustainable practices are crucial to preserve these resources for future generations (Kushwaha et al. 2016; Kumar et al. 2022).

One of the largest food grain-producing regions in the world is the Indo-Gangetic Plain, India. Indian states like West Bengal, Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, and Bihar cover about 10.5 million hectares of arable area and produce the majority of the nation's rice and wheat (Kumar & Sharma 2020). Due to the wide implementation of Green Revolution technology, which led to crop yield improvement and then area expansion, agricultural output growth in this region has been able to keep up with national food demand over the past 30 years. However, the potential for increasing the supply of arable land and natural resources is now diminishing rapidly (Eliazer Nelson et al. 2019). The conservation of the resources, namely, land and water, in the Indo-Gangetic Plain is another limitation for agriculture sustainability. The natural resources in this region are said to have been stressed by the rice–wheat system, and additional inputs are needed to achieve the same production levels (Shiferaw et al. 2013; Bhatt et al. 2021). Irrigation water saving and crop yield improvement can be enhanced by shifting from traditional farming practices.

The traditional methods of farming rice–wheat cropping system involve frequent ploughing (six to eight ploughings), cultivating, planking, and soil pulverization. In recent times, field preparation has been replaced with direct seeding of wheat utilizing zero-till (ZT) seed drills (Gupta & Seth 2007). Over 1 million ha of the Indo-Gangetic Plains' water requirement for rice–wheat farming systems has been successfully decreased by ZT. Laxmi et al. (2003) reported that ZT consumed 13–33% less irrigation water compared with conventional tillage (CT) for wheat crops. Other benefits that ZT offers over CT include better soil health, fuel savings of 75%, and increased levels of organic carbon (Malik et al. 2002). Compared to CT, reduced-tillage or No Tillage (NT), as a Conservation Agriculture (CA) component may enhance soil carbon.

Another technique for saving irrigation water and improving crop yield is the utilization of laser land levelling (LLL) (Chen et al. 2022). According to several studies, LLL in Pakistan reduced the amount of irrigation water used by around 25% and increased wheat yields by nearly 30% compared with traditional methods (Memon 2015). In the case of zero tillage wheat with LLL, a similar increase in yield and a decrease in irrigation water application were recorded in India and China. Saleem et al. (2023) experimented on 3 acres of farmland in south Punjab, Pakistan, to assess LLL with 0 and 0.05% gradients compared with traditional levelling. Results showed that LLL with a 0.05% gradient significantly reduced irrigation water use and increased water use efficiency and crop yield, followed by the 0% gradient. In addition, bolls per plant and final cotton yield were higher with a 0.05% gradient. This method resulted in higher net benefits due to the increased yield and the reduced irrigation water use. This study suggests that LLL with a 0.05% gradient offers significant advantages over 0% gradient and traditional levelling practices. The study by Kahlown et al. (2006) concluded that the adoption of resource conservation technologies (RCTs), such as ZT, laser levelling, and bed and furrow planting, decreased irrigation water applications by 23–45% while boosting yield. The advantages in agricultural productivity are often multiplied by the LLL conservation technique. LLL directly increases the advantages by eliminating any negative consequences of uneven fields. Ali et al. (2024) assessed the performance of chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) under three levelling implements: planker, iron blade, and laser leveller. Conducted at Sindh Agriculture University, Tandojam, Pakistan, during the 2021–22 winter season, the field experiment used a randomized complete block design with three replications. Results showed that the laser leveller (T3) produced the best growth and yield traits, including days to 50% germination (18.0), flowering (47.53), and pod formation (77.53), plant height (72.63 cm), pods per plant (71.8), seed index (193.33 g), biological yield (4,226.66 kg/ha), grain yield (2,550.0 kg/ha), and harvest index (59.64%). The planker (T1) followed in performance, while the iron blade (T2) had the lowest results. Laser levelling ensures uniform water and fertilizer distribution and ease in field operations, leading to higher seed yields. Therefore, LLL of irrigated areas can also result in the following advantages either directly or indirectly. The land receives an even distribution of water, which increases irrigation effectiveness. In laser levelled fields, about 30% of the water is conserved; as a result, more land can be watered. The levelled field will yield 20% more because of more consistent germination (Jat et al. 2006). Equal fertilizer distribution increases its effectiveness and efficiency. Land levelling reduces erosion risks, enhances machine usage, and can expand crop area by reducing undesirable watercourses. It also reduces irrigation water needs, lowering tube well operation, electricity, and energy costs, while improving groundwater quality.

More than 90% of rice production and consumption takes place in Asia. Rice is typically grown in Asia using the transplanting technique. The transplanting method is used to raise rice nurseries, and after 20–30 days, the seedlings are moved into puddled soil (Chaudhary et al. 2022). This type of rice cultivation is referred to as puddled transplanted rice (PTR). Rice farming can benefit from scrubbing the soil. It makes a layer that is impervious, which reduces water loss through percolation, makes it simple to plant seeds, suppresses weeds, and fosters anaerobic conditions that increase nutrient availability (Sanchez 1973). The earliest known method of establishing rice is Direct-seeded rice (DSR). Before the 1950s, it was common, but over time, puddled transplanting took its place (Rao et al. 2007). The possibility of DSR as a substitute for PTR has been noted in numerous research. For instance, while keeping the conditions of irrigation application the same for both rice establishment procedures, on-farm testing in the Philippines showed an average of 67–104 mm (11–18%) irrigation water savings in wet-DSR than CT-PTR (Tabbal et al. 2002). As in India, where the criteria for irrigation application were either the formation of hairline cracks or tensiometer based (20 kPa at 20-cm depth), 10–15% water savings have been documented with dry-DSR compared with CT-PTR (Sudhir-Yadav et al. 2011). About 35–57% of water savings have been reported in research experiments in DSR sown into unpuddled soils.

Hossain et al. (2021) conducted a study to determine the optimal transplanting window for T. Aman rice to maximize rainfall utilization and minimize irrigation demand. Experiments were conducted over 3 years (2013–2015) in Kushtia, Bangladesh, with subsequent testing in Pabna and Rajshahi, and the field experiment involved six transplanting dates for the BR11 cultivar at 7-day intervals from July 10 to August 14. Results indicated that T. Aman rice received sufficient rainfall up to the vegetative phase across all locations and years, resulting in no irrigation demand during this phase. Early transplanting benefited from more rainfall during the reproductive phase, while delayed transplanting increased irrigation demand during this phase in all three locations. A significant relationship (R² = 0.71) was found between reproductive phase ID and grain yield, whereas grain yield showed a weaker response to ID during the ripening phase. Yield performance identified July 10–24 as the suitable transplanting window for BR11 in Kushtia. For Pabna and Rajshahi, the optimal transplanting windows were July 10–17 and July 10–24, respectively. Kumar et al. (2024) assessed the zero-till direct seeding of rice (ZTDSR) with an optimal irrigation schedule can reduce water usage compared with PTR. Results indicated that the best schedule for ZTDSR was −15 kPa with straw mulch, saving 36.2 cm of water and increasing water productivity, but yielding 20% less grain than PTR. PTR had higher groundwater system loss (29.2 cm) compared with ZTDSR (23.6 cm). ZTDSR thus improves groundwater management, saves irrigation water, and enhances water productivity despite a lower grain yield, offering a solution to the groundwater crisis in northwest India.

Drawing upon the comprehensive literature survey presented earlier, it becomes evident that it is essential to quantify the availability of the various water resources in the for better planning and efficient utilization to make a sustainable environment. There are limited studies available in the literature that focus on the detailed computation of water balance components. The study addresses the pressing issue of water scarcity threatening sustainable food production by examining water use efficiency in groundwater-depleted districts of Haryana and Punjab, India. It highlights the potential for significant irrigation water savings through effective water management techniques. Unlike other studies, this study aimed at utilizing the finger diagram to represent the various dominant components of the water resources in a region and its comprehensive approach to water accounting and the practical solutions it offers, such as adjusting the timing of rice sowing to align with the rainy season and transitioning from traditional cropping systems to more water-efficient alternatives. In addition, the emphasis on the blue and green components of consumptive use and unmet water demand quantification are the novelties of the current study. This study discusses the different scenarios for practical solutions in the district. The study emphasizes the benefits of modern practices such as LLL and zero-till drills, which enhance water and nutrient use efficiency, improve crop yields, and facilitate proper drainage. These insights are crucial for promoting sustainable agriculture in regions facing severe water shortages. The main objectives of the present study are to conduct a comprehensive water accounting analysis in the groundwater-depleted districts of Haryana and Punjab, India, and to identify the potential savings in irrigation water that can be achieved through the implementation of efficient management techniques. The study aimed to provide valuable insights into the sustainable use of water resources, with a focus on promoting water conservation practices that support agricultural productivity in these critical regions. The implication of the findings of the current study could be to furnish valuable information about water use in the district administrative boundaries.

All the selected districts in both the states, namely, Haryana and Punjab, are dominated by the agriculture land use and land cover (LULC) type having more than 85.5% area under agriculture. These districts have varying areas with a minimum gross cropped area of 2,280.0 km² in the Kaithal district and a maximum area of 3,614.52 km² in Sangrur. The major soil types in the districts are sandy loam, loamy sand, loam, silty clay, and silt clay loam. The details of LULC and major soil texture types in different districts are presented in Table 1.

The Indo-Gangetic plain is dominated by the rice–wheat cropping pattern. Rice is the dominating crop in all the districts during the kharif season, and wheat has maximum area coverage during rabi season. In all the four districts, sugarcane is the third dominating crop having a minimum cultivation area of 3,400 ha in the Kaithal district and a maximum area of 11,100 ha in the Karnal district. Kaithal and Patiala districts have cotton area more than the sugarcane area. The net area sown with the major crops in the selected districts is displayed in Table 2.

To apply water accounting performance indicators to the study area, various water components were estimated. The investigation in this study focuses on the district administrative area. The total inflow to the system comprises rainfall volume (P), surface flow from outside the study area, and sub-surface flow (groundwater) entering the study region. We calculated the mean aerial rainfall depth data for the study area using the Thiessen polygon method. The total volume of water generated due to rainfall in the district was obtained by multiplying the rainfall depth by the geographical area.

Surface water available (AW_sw) in the district includes water in surface water reservoirs such as dams and ponds. Data on groundwater availability (AW_gw) in this district were sourced from CGWB (Central Ground Water Board) 2013 reports, which estimate annual groundwater recharge using the water table fluctuation method. The gross inflow to the system consists of the total precipitation volume and total transfer inflow, including surface water and groundwater flow into the domain. Gridded rainfall data with a resolution of 0.25° × 0.25° obtained from India Meteorological Department (IMD), Pune, were used for this purpose. The net inflow component of water accounting comprises the gross inflow to the district and any changes in storage. On an annual scale, we assumed that changes in storage (both surface and sub-surface) were negligible, consistent with previous studies. Therefore, in this analysis, the net inflow is considered equal to the gross inflow, excluding water allotted for committed use. The remaining water volume is available for use.

The available water includes blue available water (ABW) and green water storage (P_e). Blue water available consists of surface water and groundwater in the district. Total available surface water is determined as the water available from canals or other surface water reservoirs, while the available groundwater resource of the district is the groundwater recharged from rainfall. Annual groundwater recharge, or the ‘dynamic groundwater resources,’ is typically calculated using the method outlined in GWREC 1997, as followed by CGWB. These values for available surface and groundwater resources were obtained from the district irrigation plan reports.

Water accounting for the districts was estimated for an average rainfall year, 2015. Non-availability of temporal data on surface and groundwater resources (taken from District Irrigation Plans (DIPs) and CGWB reports) limits a more detailed water accounting considering variability in rainfall and will be carried out at the implementation stage of the project.

The current research illustrates the water management analysis for four districts situated in Haryana and Punjab. These districts were deliberately chosen based on their water scarcity conditions and the state of groundwater utilization. All of the selected districts were classified as over-exploited regions due to the existing high levels of groundwater extraction. The water assessment for the Kaithal district is depicted using a visual representation in Figure 3. In the year 2015, the district received a total of 1,769.5 million cubic metres (MCM) of net ABW from rainfall. This net ABW comprises three main components: surface water (AW_sw), groundwater (AW_gw), and green water (P_e), with volumes of 174.8, 594.5, and 348.9 MCM, respectively. The primary crops cultivated in the district include rice (CDp), wheat (CDw), sugarcane (CDs), and cotton (CDc). Their respective water requirements for the crop season in 2015–2016 were 1,281.40, 500.90, 150.70, and 27.20 MCM. In addition to crop needs, other sector demands (Dos) such as domestic consumption, livestock, industrial usage, and hydropower generation were assessed for the year 2015 and totalled 62.43 MCM. Consequently, the overall water demand in the district comprises both crop water requirements and demands from other sectors, amounting to an estimated 2,158.4 MCM.

Analysing the water accounting diagram for the Kaithal district, it becomes evident that a substantial portion of the water demand, totalling 807 MCM, remains unmet despite the utilization of the district's annual replenishable green and blue water resources. This shortfall has led to an excessive reliance on non-renewable groundwater extraction, resulting in a continuous decline in the district's water table. However, it is worth noting that a measurable amount of precipitation, amounting to 651.3 MCM, flows out of the district as outflows. This presents an opportunity for intervention through scientific methods to harness this water resource effectively. It can be employed to recharge groundwater reserves and can also be stored in surface water structures as blue water, which can be subsequently used for supplementary irrigation and to fulfil the water requirements of various other sectors within the region.

Based on the water assessment block diagram of Karnal, it can be deduced that a substantial portion of the district's water demand, amounting to 482.7 MCM, remains unmet despite the availability of annual renewable green and blue water resources. Consequently, there is an excessive reliance on the extraction of non-renewable groundwater, resulting in a decline in the district's water table. However, it is noteworthy that a measurable portion of precipitation exits the district as surface outflows, totalling 884.6 MCM. This presents an opportunity for harnessing these outflows through scientific interventions, enabling the recharge of groundwater and the storage of blue water in surface reservoirs.

Based on the water availability analysis schematic for the Patiala district, it can be deduced that a significant portion of the water demand, amounting to 37.5 MCM, is not satisfied by utilizing the yearly renewable green and blue water resources accessible in the district. Consequently, there is an excessive extraction of non-renewable groundwater, leading to a gradual decline in the district's water table. In the year 2015, the net groundwater extraction in the district totalled 2,936.6 MCM, far surpassing the annual renewable replenishable groundwater resource of 1,490.8 MCM. This situation signifies that the district's groundwater development has reached a staggering 197%, indicating an overexploitation of groundwater resources.

The water assessment diagram for Sangrur indicates that a significant portion of the water demand, amounting to 897.5 MCM, is not met by utilizing the annual replenishable green and blue water resources available in the district. Consequently, there is an excessive reliance on non-replenishable groundwater extraction, which is leading to a decline in the district's water table. In such a scenario of declining groundwater levels, it is imperative to implement effective water management strategies to mitigate further depletion. This can be achieved through a variety of interventions, including adjusting the timing of rice crop planting to align with the onset of the rainy season, adopting LLL techniques, employing zero-till drills for wheat and direct-seeded rice, and replacing water-intensive rice crops with maize to reduce overall crop water demand.

The intercomparison of district water accounting components is displayed in Table 3. As it can be seen from Table 3, the unmet demand was the least for the Patiala district (37.5 MCM) and highest for the Sangrur district (897.5 MCM). This may be due to the higher utilization of green water use/effective rainfall in the Patiala district as compared with the other three districts. Surface and groundwater availability also influenced the unmet water demand. This unmet demand forces the exploitation of groundwater resources, thus resulting in overexploitation of the groundwater resources. The unmet demand in the Kaithal, Karnal, and Sangrur districts was 20.5, 11.9, and 22.9 times higher than in the Patiala district. As this water accounting was for a normal rainfall year, i.e., 2015, long-term water accounting assessment of spatially varied scale would facilitate devising better water management strategies.

The present study conducted water accounting for four groundwater-depleted districts (Kaithal and Karnal in Haryana, and Patiala and Sangrur in Punjab, India) and explored various resource conservation techniques. These techniques include delayed transplanting of rice, shifting rice cultivation to maize, LLL, and zero-till drilling for water saving and sustainable use of resources. The results presented in Section 3 provide valuable insights into the water management challenges faced by selected districts in Haryana and Punjab, India. These findings underscore the urgent need for sustainable water management strategies in regions grappling with over-exploitation of groundwater resources and water scarcity. The water accounting conducted for the Kaithal, Karnal, Patiala, and Sangrur districts offers a clear picture of the severity of water stress in these regions. All four districts exhibit a significant gap between water demand and the ABW resources. This unmet demand is primarily met through excessive groundwater withdrawal, leading to a decline in the water table. The consequences of such groundwater depletion are far-reaching, affecting not only agricultural sustainability but also the environment and the livelihoods of the local population. The over-exploitation of groundwater, as indicated by the excessively high stage of groundwater development (>100%), is a critical concern in these districts. Groundwater serves as a lifeline for agriculture in these regions, and its depletion jeopardizes the livelihoods of farmers who heavily rely on it for irrigation. The declining water tables exacerbate the cost of extraction, often requiring deeper and more energy-intensive borewells. This situation is economically unsustainable for small and marginal farmers who form a significant portion of the agricultural landscape in these areas.

Furthermore, the ecological impacts of groundwater depletion are significant. It leads to land subsidence, which can damage infrastructure and disrupt surface water flow patterns. Moreover, as the results highlight, excessive groundwater withdrawal contributes to the outflow of water from these districts. This lost water represents a missed opportunity for recharging groundwater aquifers or storing it for supplemental irrigation, which could mitigate the need for further groundwater extraction. The crop water demand in these districts, reveals that rice, wheat, sugarcane, and cotton are among the principal crops. The water requirements of these crops, particularly rice and sugarcane, are substantial. The results suggest that crop selection and cultivation practices play a pivotal role in water management. Encouragingly, the results show that interventions like delaying rice transplanting can significantly reduce crop water demand without sacrificing crop yield. The irrigation water demand of the rice was substantially reduced by late planting in Bangladesh (Acharjee et al. 2019). However, the delayed transplanting dates should be carefully identified to avoid the risk of heat stress which may reduce the crop yield. In our study, we have also observed that shifting the paddy transplanting date to match the onset of onset of the rainy season can save an ample quantity of water and thus reduce the irrigation demand. The delayed transplanting strategy aligns crop water demand with the onset of the rainy season, thereby reducing the reliance on groundwater for irrigation. In addition, the proposal to replace water-intensive rice with maize in a certain proportion of cultivated land is a promising intervention. Maize requires significantly less water compared with rice, and such substitutions could contribute to substantial water savings. Shifting from rice to millet (pearl millet) and wheat to sorghum reduces water requirements by 32% (Chakraborti et al. 2023). We also observed similar results for shifting from a rice–wheat cropping pattern to a maize–wheat cropping pattern. It is essential to highlight that crop diversification can enhance the resilience of agricultural systems and reduce the pressure on water resources. Kulkarni et al. (2023) showed that the main reason why Marathwada, India, faces persistent droughts, leading to farmer suicides, is erratic rainfall patterns and shifting to high-water demand crops, exacerbating groundwater depletion, outweighing rainfall variations. In another study (Davis et al. 2017), it was found that optimizing crop distribution can save water, enhance productivity, and preserve diversity. Their global analysis identified the potential to reduce blue water use by 12% and provide food for an additional 825 million people. Villalba et al. (2024) assessed the adoption of RCTs such as laser land leveller (LLL) and happy seeder in climate-smart villages, Haryana, using data from 120 farmers. Results revealed the adoption rate of 77% for laser land levellers and 52% for happy seeders, with most farmers preferring to hire rather than purchase these technologies due to financial limitations. Farmers typically seek funding from family, savings, and moneylenders instead of commercial banks to avoid bureaucratic delays. The study highlights the crucial role of custom-hiring centres in facilitating climate-smart agriculture adoption and suggests that institutional innovations are needed to enhance credit access for smallholder farmers. These findings have significant implications for policymakers aiming to improve agricultural finance and promote climate resilience. Kapuria & Banerjee (2022) examined cereal production in the lower Indo-Gangetic plains of West Bengal, India, focusing on the impact of different crop-shifting scenarios on water demand and nutrient production. The analysis revealed that replacing the summer crop (Boro rice) with maize in each district can reduce irrigation water demand and enhance the production of macronutrients and micronutrients. This shift has significant implications, as the sustainability of future crop production depends on the availability of groundwater crucial resource for maintaining grain self-sufficiency in the region.

The present study also explores the potential benefits of delayed transplanting, crop diversification, and LLL over TLL in reducing crop water demand. The results indicate that LLL can significantly decrease water requirements for both wheat and rice crops. This finding is noteworthy as it presents a practical and readily implementable solution to optimize water use in agriculture. Adopting LLL can not only save water but also improve crop yields and reduce energy consumption, as it enables more efficient irrigation practices. The advantages of employing LLL in diverse agricultural production systems have been extensively documented (Ahmad et al. 2014; Aquino et al. 2015; Ali et al. 2018). Foremost advantages encompass heightened water productivity, notably in flooded rice systems, reduced irrigation needs, and quicker water distribution across fields (Jat 2012). LLL additionally bolsters crop yield and farm profitability (Ali et al. 2018). In water-intensive flood-irrigated settings, LLL aids in optimizing land and crop management for increased food production with reduced water and energy consumption (Ahmad et al. 2014). Obtained results also suggested the potential water-saving benefits of zero-till drill and zero-till direct seed rice (ZTDSR-ZTW) systems compared with the conventional PTR-CTW system. The results indicate that adopting ZTDSR-ZTW can lead to significant reductions in crop water demand. These conservation agriculture practices, which involve minimal soil disturbance and direct seeding, can enhance soil health, increase water infiltration, and reduce evaporation, ultimately leading to water savings. Yadav et al. (2021) concluded that crop establishment innovations, like ZTDSR and machine-transplanted rice, reduce weeds, boost yields, save labour and water, and enhance soil health in India's rice–wheat cropping system, ensuring sustainable agriculture. Balasubramanian & Hill (2000) found that DSR demonstrates greater drought resilience and increased profitability in areas with reliable irrigation. DSR systems conserve 11–18% of irrigation water (Tabbal et al. 2002) and reduce labour needs by 11–66%, varying with location, season, and DSR type (Rashid et al. 2009). Tomar et al. (2020) reported that LLL saved irrigation water by 16.36, 14.54, 16.66, and 21.15% compared with traditionally levelled fields, and by 27.27, 27.27, 31.66, and 47.11% compared with unlevelled fields for wheat crop in the Morena, Madhya Pradesh. This highlights the significance of the LLL technique in conserving irrigation water, which may be utilized to bring additional land area under an assured irrigation facility. The assumptions considered in the current study include zero changes in the storage components of the water balance on an annual basis. Budyko (1974) assumed zero change in the storage within the catchment in Budyko-based water balance models. Our study also relies on a similar assumption. Also, Zhang et al. (2008) reported that for the long-term effects, the change in the storage within a catchment becomes negligible. Our finding also used the same approach for the storage water accounting component. The limitation of the present study is that the analysis was done for a single year due to the non-availability of the data sources. However, long-term assessment of water accounting components varied at spatial scales would aid in effective planning and management of the water resources.

The present investigation also concluded that crop selection and cultivation practices, LLL, and conservation agriculture techniques offer practical solutions to mitigate the water crisis. It is essential to recognize that addressing water scarcity is a multidimensional challenge that requires the collaboration of government bodies, research institutions, non-governmental organizations, and local communities.

Several water management strategies discussed in this study aim to mitigate groundwater depletion, reduce carbon emissions from excessive groundwater pumping, lower pumping costs, and minimize environmental pollution. Achieving optimal outcomes requires the integrated implementation of these interventions. The water accounting analysis of the studied districts has identified opportunities to harness water outflows through engineering solutions. The main conclusions drawn from the study are as follows:

• The water accounting analysis of the selected districts in the Punjab and Haryana states revealed that there is a mismatch between the water supply available and water demand.

• Patiala district showed the least unmet demand from the ABW (37.5 MCM), while Kaithal, Karnal, and Sangrur showed unmet demand of 807.3, 482.7, and 897.5 MCM, emphasizing the pressure on the groundwater resource to fulfil this unmet water demand.

• The unmet demand in the Kaithal, Karnal, and Sangrur districts was 20.5, 11.9, and 22.9 times higher than in the Patiala district emphasizing the adoption of water management strategies.

• Adjusting the timing of rice sowing/transplanting to align with the onset of the rainy seasons can lead to decreased crop evapotranspiration, resulting in significant water savings and reduced groundwater extraction.

• Shifting from a rice–wheat cropping system to a maize–wheat system can substantially decrease crop water demand. Replacing rice with maize can result in a 54.66% reduction in crop water demand per hectare.

• Another beneficial practice is the adoption of LLL. The implementation of LLL in Haryana and Punjab districts resulted in significant water savings: in the Kaithal district, water demand for wheat was reduced by 183.66 MCM and rice by 510.00 MCM, while in Karnal, wheat and rice demands dropped by 184.47 and 554.41 MCM, respectively. In Patiala, LLL reduces wheat water demand by 239.10 MCM and rice by 732.42 MCM; in Sangrur, savings are 315.23 MCM for wheat and 969.71 MCM for rice. Overall, LLL reduces water demand for rice by 19.9% and for wheat by 22%.

• The adoption of the ZTDSR-ZTW system significantly reduces water demand in Haryana and Punjab districts. In Kaithal, water demand decreases by 45.92 MCM for wheat and 768.84 MCM for rice, while in Karnal, the reduction is 46.12 MCM for wheat and 835.80 MCM for rice. In Punjab's Patiala district, the system saves 523.21 MCM for wheat and 101.21 MCM for rice, and in Sangrur, it saves 257.92 MCM for wheat and 730.94 MCM for rice.

Future research should focus on integrating the various water management strategies discussed in this study to create a comprehensive approach to mitigate groundwater depletion, reduce carbon emissions from excessive pumping, lower pumping costs, and minimize environmental pollution. Specific areas for further investigation include the development and implementation of engineering solutions such as check dams, pond construction, and runoff diversion to enhance water storage. By pursuing these directions, future studies can provide actionable insights and practical solutions to ensure sustainable water management and agricultural productivity in water-scarce regions. The limitations of the study include the inflows and outflows of surface and groundwater components into the study domain, and thus, these components were not considered at this stage of the investigation. We assumed zero changes in the storage components of the water balance on an annual basis. Also, the assessment was done for a single year due to data unavailability and more such analysis should be done for multiple years for conclusive supply–demand analysis.

This work was done under an IWMI project. The project ‘Transforming Rice-Wheat Food Systems in India’ is financed by the Global Environment Facility (GEF) under the Food Systems, Land Use and Restoration (FOLUR) Impact Program. The IWMI, New Delhi, received the funding.

Every co-author has reviewed and consented to the submission of this article to the Journal of Water Supply.

All relevant data are included in the paper or its Supplementary Information.

The authors declare there is no conflict.