Voluntary governance model for addressing heavy metal pollution in China: an analysis of the network governance approach

Over the past three decades, China has witnessed rapid industrial growth, particularly in the chemical industry, which stands as one of the nation's key sectors (Wang et al. 2015; Liu et al. 2018). Nevertheless, due to inadequate environmental legislation and enforcement, numerous chemical factories have been discharging untreated wastewater directly into water bodies, resulting in significant environmental issues, including heavy metal water pollution (Wang & Yang 2016). Prolonged exposure to heavy metal pollution has been linked to various adverse health effects in humans, such as cancer, pulmonary adenocarcinomas, and prostatic proliferative lesions (Żukowska & Biziuk 2008). To address this pressing concern of heavy metal pollution, the Chinese government had to urgently implement measures.

To address this environmental challenge, the Chinese government implemented a top-down, centralized state-centric governance approach known as the ‘pollution first, treatment afterward’ strategy (Zhang et al. 2016). However, this approach exhibited certain challenges, including prolonged response time to environmental issues. In this study, we employ the theory of network governance to analyze the current problem and propose a novel governance model called voluntary governance. By strategically incorporating voluntary governance as a supplement to the state-centric model, we aim to enhance environmental treatment efficiency. Finally, we discuss the constraints of voluntary governance and draw conclusions regarding its applicability.

Heavy metal pollution has emerged as a nationwide problem, affecting various provinces. Among the 10 provinces most affected by heavy metal pollution, notable regions include Henan, Shandong, Sichuan, Hunan, Hubei, Jiangsu, Inner Mongolia, Yunnan, Guangxi, and Jiangxi (see Table 1). These provinces encompass a diverse range, from heavily populated areas like Shandong and Henan to sparsely populated regions like Inner Mongolia. Economic variations are also evident, from advanced economic provinces like Jiangsu to weaker economic provinces like Yunnan and Guangxi. Furthermore, the impacted areas span from northern regions, such as Shandong, to southern regions, such as Guangxi. Despite these differences, all provinces face significant threats from heavy metal pollution, necessitating a national-level approach to governance rather than regional solutions.

The prevalence of heavy metal pollution in China can be attributed, in large part, to the inadequacy of proper environmental governance. This issue varies across different regions, each facing distinct environmental governance challenges. For instance, in certain provinces like Yunnan, the absence of a well-established environmental legislation system allowed chemical factories to freely discharge wastewater directly into water bodies. On the other hand, provinces such as Hebei, Henan, and Shandong had established and published environmental laws, yet their monitoring systems proved insufficient. Consequently, chemical factories in these regions continued to release wastewater into waterways, confident that they would not face punitive consequences.

Moreover, in some rural areas, the lack of awareness and education about environmental laws led people to unknowingly release heavy metal-polluted water without realizing its illegality. In contrast, some urban centers possessed a higher level of awareness regarding the illegal nature of wastewater release. However, driven by economic interests, some individuals still chose to flout the environmental laws and release polluted water despite being fully aware of the consequences.

The combination of these factors resulted in a significant burden of heavy metal pollution across China, exacerbating the complexity of addressing the problem of unregulated wastewater release. The multifaceted nature of the issue calls for a comprehensive and targeted approach to environmental governance, incorporating measures to educate the public, enforce legislation, and incentivize responsible industrial practices. Only through such concerted efforts can China effectively combat the challenges posed by heavy metal pollution and achieve a healthier and more sustainable environment for its populace.

However, the current state-centric governance system exhibits several limitations that necessitate critical consideration:

• (1) Long response time: The sequential nature of the governance process leads to significant delays in addressing heavy metal contamination issues. By the time the problem is reported, local communities may have already experienced adverse consequences, sometimes manifesting within a week. In contrast, the reporting, decision-making, and implementation phases may require a minimum of 2–4 months.

• (2) Low governance efficiency: The existing reporting system may not provide the central government with sufficient information to make well-informed decisions. Additionally, the implementation of remediation plans and environmental law enforcement may encounter resistance, such as protests from local chemical industries, which significantly hampers governance efficiency.

• (3) Inaccurate remediation plans and policies: Immaturity in the information system restricts the central government's understanding of the situation, leading to potential inaccuracies in the formulation of remediation plans and environmental policies. Insufficient funding allocation or the adoption of inappropriate remediation technologies may result from this lack of accurate information, leading to resource wastage during the governance process.

• (4) Restriction of scientific research and technological development: The concentration of decision-making power within the state-centric governance model may impede academic freedom and dampen the enthusiasm of researchers. Furthermore, the central government's limited expertise in environmental matters might hinder its ability to provide insightful recommendations to researchers, consequently limiting the scope of environmental research.

Addressing these limitations calls for a reassessment of the governance model, exploring potential adjustments to foster more efficient and timely responses to heavy metal pollution incidents. Emphasizing improved data collection, enhanced communication channels, and greater collaboration between government institutions, research bodies, NGOs, and businesses could pave the way for a more agile and effective governance system in tackling heavy metal pollution in China. Moreover, striking a balance between centralized authority and academic freedom can stimulate innovation, thus accelerating advancements in environmental technologies and research endeavors.

To address the limitations inherent in the current centralized top-down state-centric governance model, this paper adopts the theory of network governance for analysis. This theory revolves around fostering synergy among various entities (Jones et al. 1997) and has proven valuable in studying ecological and environmental challenges, aiding researchers in understanding distinct roles within a governance model and offering innovative policy design recommendations (Bixler et al. 2016). A prior study utilized the theory of network governance to enhance efficiency and streamline decision-making processes by distributing knowledge (Poole 2014).

Within the framework of network governance, four typical governance models exist: state-centric (hierarchical) governance, multi-partner governance, market governance, and voluntary governance (self-governance) (Lowndes & Skelcher 1998). At present, China primarily adheres to the state-centric governance model when addressing heavy metal pollution issues. However, this paper delves into the concept of voluntary governance as a novel approach to complement the existing state-centric governance system, aiming to achieve more efficient remediation efforts.

In light of these strengths, the voluntary governance model emerges as a promising alternative to bolster pollution treatment efforts. Its emphasis on local involvement, accurate regional focus, and fostering technological advancements positions it as a valuable complement to the existing state-centric governance system. By leveraging the unique advantages of voluntary governance, China stands to enhance its capacity to tackle pollution challenges effectively and achieve a more sustainable environmental landscape.

In examining the potential benefits of the voluntary governance model for addressing heavy metal pollution, it is crucial to acknowledge the inherent limitations that may impede its smooth implementation. Despite its promising features, voluntary governance faces certain challenges, which warrant careful consideration. The following points outline the key limitations of the voluntary governance model:

• (1) Cultural challenges: The adoption of the voluntary governance model may encounter cultural obstacles rooted in a long-standing tradition of employing a top-down state-centric governance approach. Traditional Chinese culture emphasizes reporting problems to higher authorities and adhering to their guidance in solving issues. Transitioning away from such deeply ingrained cultural practices necessitates a concerted, long-term effort from various organizations to ensure successful implementation. In areas where the local populace is unfamiliar with the voluntary governance system, confusion and resistance may arise during the remediation process.

• (2) Resistance to novel policy and governance systems: The shift to voluntary governance involves both policy innovation and decentralization of decision-making. However, this change may encounter resistance from those who maintain that centralized decision-making is the most efficient. To overcome this, it is essential to confront these traditional beliefs and demonstrate how decentralization can lead to more effective outcomes. This mindset shift is gradual and requires strategic communication and evidence-based arguments.

• (3) Challenges in gathering funding: The successful application of the voluntary governance system demands substantial financial investment. Adequate funding is crucial to support various aspects of the voluntary governance model, such as employing environmental experts, advocacy, and advertisement. While China's government currently enjoys a sound financial position, persuading the government to allocate considerable resources to environmental reform remains a challenge.

In light of the above analysis, it is clear that directly replacing the current state-centric governance system with the voluntary governance model is not realistic. However, this paper suggests that the voluntary governance system could be selectively applied in specific areas to address heavy metal pollution more efficiently. By strategically targeting regions where the cultural landscape and willingness to embrace change align with the principles of voluntary governance, its implementation can be optimized. The gradual integration of voluntary governance in these contexts can pave the way for enhanced pollution remediation efforts and serve as a step toward adopting a more diversified governance approach in China's environmental management. As shown in Table 2, state-centric (hierarchical) governance excels in traditional governance and formal processes, while voluntary governance (self-governance) offers advantages in efficiency and rapid response. Furthermore, voluntary governance holds the potential to complement state-centric governance, creating a synergistic approach to tackling environmental challenges.

In conclusion, heavy metal pollution remains a critical challenge, affecting millions of people over the past three decades. Although the state-centric governance model has made progress in addressing this issue, it faces limitations such as delayed response times, inefficiency, imprecise treatments, and a lack of technological innovation. To address these challenges, this study introduces network governance as an analytical framework and advocates for the adoption of voluntary governance as a complementary approach. Voluntary governance has the potential to revitalize local enthusiasm and enhance environmental management practices. However, successful implementation requires overcoming cultural barriers and securing adequate funding. By strategically incorporating voluntary governance as a supplement to the state-centric model, China can harness its unique strengths to achieve more sustainable and efficient pollution control.

All relevant data are included in the paper or its Supplementary Information.

The authors declare there is no conflict.