Abstract
Water conservation is a critical issue, particularly in arid countries and countries that suffer a lack of natural water resources. Jordan is one of the most water-scarce countries in the world; this fact has forced the search for alternative sustainable solutions. With the support of several regional and international organizations, tens of projects were implemented across the country over the past 30 years that aimed to reuse greywater in rural communities. The current review provides a wide overview of Jordan's experience in greywater treatment and its reuse for non-potable purposes in rural areas. To the best knowledge of the authors, the present review is the first to assess the Jordanian experience in this field. Many governmental authorities and non-governmental organizations have been involved in Jordan's experience. The greywater reuse systems were established to achieve advantageous environmental and socio-economic consequences on the rural communities. The strategy of greywater treatment was based on a local on-site greywater treatment system in households or the so-called ‘autonomous water management’. The applied greywater treatment technologies in households were found efficient in rendering greywater adequate for agricultural uses. However, further improvements and territorial expansion of the experiment are needed.
HIGHLIGHTS
The manuscript provides a wide overview of Jordan's experience in greywater treatment and reuse.
Tens of projects have been experimented over a period of three decades.
Reuse of greywater was implemented in rural areas that severely suffer from lack of water resources.
Most projects are based locally using on-site household implemented systems.
They provided a valid support to socio-economic benefits to urban region inhabitants.
Graphical Abstract
INTRODUCTION
Water pollution is variable in quantity and type of pollutants based on the source of water use (Al Arni et al. 2021). In the case of domestic wastewater, such as washbasin water and household cleaning water, the pollutant concentration is low compared to toilet water and it is thus called ‘greywater’. On the other hand, toilet water is a highly polluted water that is rich in organic materials such as feces and urine, which contain microorganisms such as various bacteria, viruses and parasites; this water is known as ‘blackwater’.
Greywater is further divided into two types based on the source of contamination: dark greywater produced by laundries, dishwashers and kitchen sinks; and light greywater that is produced by bathrooms, showers and tubs. To be noted that while several researchers consider kitchen water as blackwater because it contains high levels of organic materials such as oil, fat and food leftovers (Christova-Boal et al. 1996; Al-Jayyousi 2003; Abu & Lina 2009), others do not (Friedler et al. 2006; WHO 2006).
The consumed water, in particular the ablution water used in mosques, schools, hotels and domestic use, can be re-utilized to the fullest extent. In fact, this type of water does not contain high quantities of pollutants compared to the water produced by the industrial sector or sewage plants. Furthermore, the quantity of water to be treated is not large, thus its local treatment is advantageous and less complicated than treatment of industrial water and sewage.
Several countries have adopted different local water treatment methods seeking to mitigate water scarcity crisis and to reach an efficient management system of available water resources (Halalsheh & Kassab 2018). Countries such as South Africa, Mali, Nepal, Costa Rica, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, Palestine, Jordan, Lebanon and Yemen have implemented numerous projects in the field of greywater reuse (Al Arni 2014). However, a major part of these projects is experimental and partially addressed the reuse of household water. Furthermore, such projects are characterized by extreme simplicity in application that seeks to satisfy individual needs. So far, to the best of our knowledge, there is no compulsory comprehensive national policy for reusing greywater at national levels; however, extensive governmental efforts are being employed to encourage water reusing.
The municipal supply of water in Jordan is not regular over the weekdays, especially in summer and in rural areas. To overcome the issue, most Jordanian households use tanks for water storage with a capacity of 1–2 m3 to assure water availability during the whole week. In this regard, household reuse of greywater is encouraged to further enhance water sustainability. The quantity of greywater produced in Jordan is estimated to be between 50 and 80% of a person's daily water consumption (Ammari et al. 2014; Albalawneh & Chang 2015). However, the average quantity of greywater produced at the household level is between 51–63 Liters/capita per day (Jamrah & Ayyash 2008), and about 54 million m3/year (Assayed et al. 2018).
The current research aims to explore the Jordanian experience in greywater recycling during the last thirty years. To be noted, however, that wastewater treatment plant reclamation projects are excluded; the scope is limited to the evaluation of greywater reuse projects in rural communities that lack sewage systems.
HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF GREYWATER RECYCLING IN JORDAN
The Inter-Islamic Network on Water Resources Development and Management (INWRDAM) was established in 1987 by the Organization of the Islamic Conference Standing Committee on Scientific and Technological Cooperation. INWRDAM established guidelines polices for research in the field of water resources development and management for its 16 member states, including Jordan (Bino & Al-Beiruti 2007). The organization is actively involved in research; it conducts research projects in water resources management and wastewater treatment and reuse. These projects are funded by several international agencies. In 1990, INWRDAM provided training on the greywater reuse, and distributed greywater kits to several villages located in rural areas of Jordan (McIllwaine 2003b).
In 1997, CARE Australia established, in cooperation with the Voluntary Local Society, permaculture pilot projects and greywater reuse systems in Ein Al-Baida, south of Tafila in Jordan for the benefit of 50 local families (Bino & Al-Beiruti 2007).
Since February 2000, INWRDAM-Jordan, supported by the Government of Jordan and other regional and international organizations, conducted several greywater reuse projects in rural areas of Jordan. In the period 2001–2003, INWRDAM installed 25 greywater reuse units for low-income families in Ein Al-Baida in Tafila Governorate that were funded by the International Development Research Centre (IDRC). Furthermore, international cooperation among INWRDAM, CARE International and Ministry of Planning resulted in the installation of more than 750 greywater reuse units in more than 90 villages all around Jordan (Bino & Al-Beiruti 2007).
The implemented greywater reuse projects had positive impacts at the socio-economic and environmental levels; this encouraged expanding the experience into a second phase that started in 2004. In this phase, about 110 greywater reuse systems were installed in six peri-urban areas in the Al-Amer villages in the Governorate of Karak, southern part of Jordan. These projects were the result of fruitful cooperation among researchers and stakeholder ministries such as the ministries of Agriculture, Social Development, Environment, Public Health and others (Bino & Al-Beiruti 2007).
On February 15th, 2007, an international conference was held in Aqaba, Jordan, in which 29 experts, researchers and practitioners from eight different countries and representing 17 institutions, were participated. A significant declaration was issued by the participants, known as the ‘Aqaba Declaration on Greywater Use in the Middle-East and North Africa Region’ that emphasized several issues. These are: (a) greywater provides an important potential to mitigate water scarcity in dry countries; (b) greywater should be seen as a water source instead of a waste product; (c) the reclaimed greywater can be environmentally, socially and economically beneficial and culturally acceptable.
WATER SITUATION IN JORDAN
Water scarcity in Jordan is well known (Mustafa et al. 2016; Hussein 2018); in fact, Jordan is considered one of the most water-scarce countries in the world (Assayed et al. 2013; Hammouri et al. 2017). The international annual water availability per capita is 500 m3/year, while in Jordan the annual per capita is 145 m3/year (Abu Saud 2009). The increasing gap between water demand and supply in Jordan is currently a serious problem and will remain so in the near future. This is essentially due to the rapid increase in population and the large number of immigrants hosted by the country (Hammouri et al. 2017).
The treatment of greywater and recycling is one of the adopted solutions to mitigate water scarcity. The reclamation is considered as an alternative source of water supply for non-drinking uses, especially in rural areas that are very far from the centralized wastewater treatment plants or in areas where it is not technically applicable to make the connection with sewage networks. Several researches estimated that about 15–35% of fresh water can be recovered from greywater (McIllwaine 2003b; Bino & Al-Beiruti 2007; Halalsheh et al. 2008; Jamrah & Ayyash 2008; Stanley 2010). In Jordan, about 64% of houses are not connected to a municipal wastewater system (Ulimat 2012) thus, can benefited from greywater reuse. The activities of greywater treatment and reused water in Jordan are classified according to the Jordanian Ministry of Environment Regulations to the third category that indicates no significant environmental and social risks and impacts for the treatment and reuse processes (UN Habitat 2019).
JORDANIAN STANDARDS FOR GREYWATER REUSE
Several countries take severe measures to mitigate the impact of waste on public health and natural resources; the first step in this is by setting and implementing related regulations, standards and codes (Al Arni & Elwaheidi 2021). Among these regulations come the standards adapted to reclaim municipal wastewater, including greywater, and its reusing. The World Health Organization (WHO) established a global guideline to minimize the risks of greywater reuse; these include restrictions on its use for crop irrigation, and hygienic food handling (WHO 2006). The standards and regulations of municipal wastewater treatment were adopted to be applied to greywater in most countries of the world (Albalawneh & Chang 2015). Lately, however, several countries have established specialized standards for greywater reusing such as the UK, Japan, Germany, Australia and Jordan (Albalawneh & Chang 2015).
In Jordan, several standards and criteria for the reuse of treated wastewater were issued by the Water Authority of Jordan and the Ministry of Water and Irrigation in past three decades. Jordanian Standard 893 that it is dedicated for irrigation by treated wastewater was approved in 2006. Several additional regulations were issued that include Standard 893/2006 for Reclaimed Domestic Wastewater, Jordan Standard 202/2007 for Industrial Reclaimed Wastewater and Jordanian Standard No. 1766/2014 for Irrigation Water Quality Guideline.
In 2008, however, the Permanent Technical Committee for Water and Wastewater of the Jordan Standards and Metrology Organization approved the first Jordanian standard to control greywater reuse in Jordan and reusing reclaimed greywater in restricted irrigation uses (JS 1776/2008). This standard was subjected to an update to include all irrigation purposes and use restricted to surface soil around plants and not directly on plant leaves (JS 1776/2013) (JSMO 2013; Assayed et al. 2018; UN Habitat 2019; Alrousan & Dunlop 2020). Table 1 shows the allowable values of the pollution measured parameters for greywater reuse in Jordan based on its end use.
Parameter . | Irrigating cooked vegetables, gardens green lands and other crops . | Irrigating raw eaten vegetables . | Toilet flushing . |
---|---|---|---|
BOD5 (mg L−1) | 60 | 60 | ≤10 |
COD (mg L−1) | 120 | 120 | ≤20 |
TSS (mg L−1) | 100 | 50 | ≤10 |
pH | 6–9 | 6–9 | 6–9 |
NO3 (mg L−1) | 70 | 70 | 70 |
ions (as Cl−; SO42−) | 500 | 500 | 500 |
Total nitrogen, TN (mg L−1) | 50 | 50 | 50 |
Total phosphorous, TP (mg L−1) | 15 | 15 | 15 |
Turbidity (NTU) | Not available | Not available | ≤5 |
Electrical conductivity, EC (μS cm−1) | Not available | Not available | Not available |
E.coli (CFU/100 ml) | 104 | 103 | <10 |
Intestinal helminths, egg nematodes (egg number L−1) | ≤1 | ≤1 | ≤1 |
Fat, oil and grease, FOG (mg L−1) | 8 | 8 | 8 |
Parameter . | Irrigating cooked vegetables, gardens green lands and other crops . | Irrigating raw eaten vegetables . | Toilet flushing . |
---|---|---|---|
BOD5 (mg L−1) | 60 | 60 | ≤10 |
COD (mg L−1) | 120 | 120 | ≤20 |
TSS (mg L−1) | 100 | 50 | ≤10 |
pH | 6–9 | 6–9 | 6–9 |
NO3 (mg L−1) | 70 | 70 | 70 |
ions (as Cl−; SO42−) | 500 | 500 | 500 |
Total nitrogen, TN (mg L−1) | 50 | 50 | 50 |
Total phosphorous, TP (mg L−1) | 15 | 15 | 15 |
Turbidity (NTU) | Not available | Not available | ≤5 |
Electrical conductivity, EC (μS cm−1) | Not available | Not available | Not available |
E.coli (CFU/100 ml) | 104 | 103 | <10 |
Intestinal helminths, egg nematodes (egg number L−1) | ≤1 | ≤1 | ≤1 |
Fat, oil and grease, FOG (mg L−1) | 8 | 8 | 8 |
aRef. JSMO (2013).
THE JORDANIAN EXPERIENCE IN GREYWATER MANAGEMENT
Greywater management constitutes an important issue, particularly in countries with limited water resources such as Jordan. An increasing recognition of greywater reuse has provided a valid alternative water source for purposes of irrigation and toilet flushing. Several related projects have been implemented in Jordan; those led to reducing the average consumption of freshwater for irrigation uses in the range 40–70% per family (Alrousan & Dunlop 2020). Greywater physicochemical characteristics, treatment technologies and typical projects that have been implemented in Jordan are provided and discussed in the following sections.
Sources of greywater and its physicochemical characteristics
Greywater characteristics depend on its source; for example, greywater produced by washing machines and dishwashers contains a variety of substances. These substances include chemical compounds that are derived from clothes' colors, detergents, suspended solids such as organic materials and others. Pollutants in greywater can be classified into chemical, physical, and biological categories including microorganisms. Furthermore, their concentration is variable with time, source and type of water usage.
Greywater samples were collected for analysis by INWRDAM from various geographic zones in Jordan. Sample locations included Tafila (12 households' samples, 6 samples in Phase I of the project of INWRDAM, 6 samples of Ministry of Planning project in Ruwem and Busera); Karak (8 households' samples) and Irbid Governorate (3 households' samples) (DPMN 2004). The samples were analyzed at the National Centre for Agricultural Research and Transfer of Technology and Water Authority of Jordan laboratories (DPMN 2004). Table 2 provides the physicochemical characteristics of untreated and treated greywater collected from difference areas in Jordan (McIllwaine 2003a; Suleiman et al. 2005, 2010; Jamrah et al. 2006; Ammari et al. 2014).
Classification of greywater sources . | Parameter (unit) . | References . | ||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
pH . | Electrical conductivity (μS cm−1) . | TDS (mg L−1) . | TSS (mg L−1) . | BOD5 (mg L−1) . | COD (mg L−1) . | Total Nitrogen, TN (mg L−1) . | Total phosphorous, TP (mg L−1) . | Potassium K (mg L−1) . | Boron, B (mg L−1) . | Methylene blue active substances, MBAS (mg L−1) . | E. coli (CFU/100 ml) . | Fat, oil and grease, FOG (mg L−1) . | ||
Untreated greywater collected from the place of ablution at King Abdullah Mosque in May 2003 | 7.2 | 8,400 | NA | NA | 23 | NA | NA | NA | NA | 0.53 | NA | 700 | NA | McIllwaine (2003a) |
Greywater collected from shower in a typical household in the city of Amman | 7.42 | 89,000 | 565 | 94 | 40.2 | 77 | 10.9 | 1.12 | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | Jamrah et al. (2006) |
Greywater collected from ablution and hand washing places | 7.6 | 1,836 | 573 | 597 | 1,489 | 105 | 26 | NA | NA | 28 | 3.00E+04 | 124 | Halalsheh et al. (2008) | |
8.3 | 2,812 | 1,271 | 698 | 650 | 1,915 | 177 | 34 | 11 | 1.6 | 43 | 4.70E+04 | 164 | Suleiman et al. (2005, 2010) | |
6.9 | 859 | 567 | 448 | 544 | 1,063 | 33 | 18 | 11 | 0.4 | 12 | 7.20E+03 | 84 | Suleiman et al. (2005, 2010) | |
Greywater collected from laundry in a typical household in the city of Amman | 8.98 | 703,000 | 2,444 | 209 | 44.3 | 58 | 14.3 | 51.58 | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | Jamrah et al. (2006) |
Untreated greywater collected from an automatic washing machine from a household in Amman, it was stored for 18 hours before the analysis test conducted. | 7.4 | 138,000 | NA | NA | 103 | NA | NA | NA | NA | 5.85 | NA | 1.60E+07 | NA | McIllwaine (2003a) |
Same above, but it was stored for 4 weeks in a sealed barrel standing outside the house before the analysis test conducted. | 7.5 | 149,000 | NA | NA | 48 | NA | NA | NA | NA | 5.73 | NA | 1.60E+06 | NA | McIllwaine (2003a) |
Greywater collected from kitchen sink | 5.5 | 870 | 649 | 655 | 827 | 1,852 | 31 | 32 | 9 | 0.8 | 46 | 2.50E+05 | 124 | Suleiman et al. (2005, 2010) |
5.8 | 875 | 821 | 527 | 832 | 1,930 | 33 | 9 | 10 | 0.6 | 88 | 6.60E+04 | 226 | Suleiman et al. (2005, 2010) | |
5.6 | 1,357 | 918 | 410 | 1,092 | 2,085 | 80 | 13 | 6 | 1.7 | 36 | 1.90E+04 | 147 | Suleiman et al. (2005, 2010) | |
5.4 | 1,163 | 934 | 985 | 1,648 | 3,109 | 58 | 19 | 17 | 0.6 | 51 | 2.50E+06 | 85 | Suleiman et al. (2005, 2010) | |
5.58 | 1,066 | 644 | 1,100 | 2,244 | 51 | 18.25 | NA | NA | 55 | 7.00E+05 | 146 | Halalsheh et al. (2008) | ||
Greywater collected from sink in a typical household in the city of Amman | 7.7 | 97,000 | 619 | 203 | 40.8 | 85 | 6.44 | 0.69 | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | Jamrah et al. (2006) |
Mixed greywater without kitchen sink | 7.3 | 2,422 | 1,409 | 1,789 | 1,285 | 3,202 | 186 | 25 | 21 | 0.8 | 77 | 1.70E+05 | 257 | Suleiman et al. (2005, 2010) |
7.2 | 2,373 | 1.724 | 1,569 | 1,423 | 5,501 | 90 | 25 | 7 | 0.7 | 207 | 1.00E+06 | 405 | Suleiman et al. (2005, 2010) | |
7.25 | 2,398 | 1,679 | 1,354 | 4,352 | 138 | 25 | NA | NA | 142 | 6.00E+05 | 331 | Halalsheh et al. (2008) | ||
Mixed greywater except kitchen and ablution sinks | 7.3 | 1,286 | 793 | 810 | 657 | 1,543 | 75 | 25 | 20 | 1 | 53 | 2.30E+04 | 91 | Suleiman et al. (2005, 2010) |
8.2 | 2,496 | 1,138 | 558 | 716 | 1,745 | 200 | 29 | 31 | 0.6 | 54 | 6.40E+05 | 67 | ||
Mixed greywater | 7.0 | 2,100 | 1,140 | 700 | 977 | 2,257 | 161 | 16 | 27 | 1 | 45 | 9.30E+04 | 202 | Suleiman et al. (2005, 2010) |
5.7 | 1,560 | 1,007 | 990 | 1,134 | 2,878 | 94 | 23 | 21 | 0.7 | 33 | 2.80E+05 | 319 | Suleiman et al. (2005, 2010) | |
6.35 | 1,830 | NA | 845 | 1,056 | 2,568 | 128 | 19.5 | NA | NA | 39 | 2.00E+05 | 261 | Halalsheh et al. (2008) | |
7.81 | 191,000 | 893 | 168 | 41.2 | 78 | 9.17 | 8.98 | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | Jamrah et al. (2006) | |
Untreated greywater, average values | 5.44 | 232,250 | 2,021.5 | 508 | 1,155 | 1,688 | NA | NA | NA | N | NA | 2.21E+05 | NA | Ammari et al. (2014) |
Average of light greywater | 7.5 | 20,581.4 | 801.0 | 453.3 | 370.8 | 1,136.0 | 81.5 | 19.8 | 11.0 | 0.8 | 27.7 | 2.12E+04 | 124.0 | |
Average of dark greywater | 6.8 | 80,634.0 | 1,056.3 | 779.4 | 817.5 | 2,186.8 | 84.7 | 21.3 | 16.9 | 1.7 | 71.2 | 1.52E+06 | 204.7 | |
Overall average | 6.9 | 68,123.0 | 1,011.2 | 717.2 | 724.5 | 1,986.6 | 84.0 | 21.0 | 15.9 | 1.5 | 63.1 | 1.22E+06 | 189.6 |
Classification of greywater sources . | Parameter (unit) . | References . | ||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
pH . | Electrical conductivity (μS cm−1) . | TDS (mg L−1) . | TSS (mg L−1) . | BOD5 (mg L−1) . | COD (mg L−1) . | Total Nitrogen, TN (mg L−1) . | Total phosphorous, TP (mg L−1) . | Potassium K (mg L−1) . | Boron, B (mg L−1) . | Methylene blue active substances, MBAS (mg L−1) . | E. coli (CFU/100 ml) . | Fat, oil and grease, FOG (mg L−1) . | ||
Untreated greywater collected from the place of ablution at King Abdullah Mosque in May 2003 | 7.2 | 8,400 | NA | NA | 23 | NA | NA | NA | NA | 0.53 | NA | 700 | NA | McIllwaine (2003a) |
Greywater collected from shower in a typical household in the city of Amman | 7.42 | 89,000 | 565 | 94 | 40.2 | 77 | 10.9 | 1.12 | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | Jamrah et al. (2006) |
Greywater collected from ablution and hand washing places | 7.6 | 1,836 | 573 | 597 | 1,489 | 105 | 26 | NA | NA | 28 | 3.00E+04 | 124 | Halalsheh et al. (2008) | |
8.3 | 2,812 | 1,271 | 698 | 650 | 1,915 | 177 | 34 | 11 | 1.6 | 43 | 4.70E+04 | 164 | Suleiman et al. (2005, 2010) | |
6.9 | 859 | 567 | 448 | 544 | 1,063 | 33 | 18 | 11 | 0.4 | 12 | 7.20E+03 | 84 | Suleiman et al. (2005, 2010) | |
Greywater collected from laundry in a typical household in the city of Amman | 8.98 | 703,000 | 2,444 | 209 | 44.3 | 58 | 14.3 | 51.58 | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | Jamrah et al. (2006) |
Untreated greywater collected from an automatic washing machine from a household in Amman, it was stored for 18 hours before the analysis test conducted. | 7.4 | 138,000 | NA | NA | 103 | NA | NA | NA | NA | 5.85 | NA | 1.60E+07 | NA | McIllwaine (2003a) |
Same above, but it was stored for 4 weeks in a sealed barrel standing outside the house before the analysis test conducted. | 7.5 | 149,000 | NA | NA | 48 | NA | NA | NA | NA | 5.73 | NA | 1.60E+06 | NA | McIllwaine (2003a) |
Greywater collected from kitchen sink | 5.5 | 870 | 649 | 655 | 827 | 1,852 | 31 | 32 | 9 | 0.8 | 46 | 2.50E+05 | 124 | Suleiman et al. (2005, 2010) |
5.8 | 875 | 821 | 527 | 832 | 1,930 | 33 | 9 | 10 | 0.6 | 88 | 6.60E+04 | 226 | Suleiman et al. (2005, 2010) | |
5.6 | 1,357 | 918 | 410 | 1,092 | 2,085 | 80 | 13 | 6 | 1.7 | 36 | 1.90E+04 | 147 | Suleiman et al. (2005, 2010) | |
5.4 | 1,163 | 934 | 985 | 1,648 | 3,109 | 58 | 19 | 17 | 0.6 | 51 | 2.50E+06 | 85 | Suleiman et al. (2005, 2010) | |
5.58 | 1,066 | 644 | 1,100 | 2,244 | 51 | 18.25 | NA | NA | 55 | 7.00E+05 | 146 | Halalsheh et al. (2008) | ||
Greywater collected from sink in a typical household in the city of Amman | 7.7 | 97,000 | 619 | 203 | 40.8 | 85 | 6.44 | 0.69 | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | Jamrah et al. (2006) |
Mixed greywater without kitchen sink | 7.3 | 2,422 | 1,409 | 1,789 | 1,285 | 3,202 | 186 | 25 | 21 | 0.8 | 77 | 1.70E+05 | 257 | Suleiman et al. (2005, 2010) |
7.2 | 2,373 | 1.724 | 1,569 | 1,423 | 5,501 | 90 | 25 | 7 | 0.7 | 207 | 1.00E+06 | 405 | Suleiman et al. (2005, 2010) | |
7.25 | 2,398 | 1,679 | 1,354 | 4,352 | 138 | 25 | NA | NA | 142 | 6.00E+05 | 331 | Halalsheh et al. (2008) | ||
Mixed greywater except kitchen and ablution sinks | 7.3 | 1,286 | 793 | 810 | 657 | 1,543 | 75 | 25 | 20 | 1 | 53 | 2.30E+04 | 91 | Suleiman et al. (2005, 2010) |
8.2 | 2,496 | 1,138 | 558 | 716 | 1,745 | 200 | 29 | 31 | 0.6 | 54 | 6.40E+05 | 67 | ||
Mixed greywater | 7.0 | 2,100 | 1,140 | 700 | 977 | 2,257 | 161 | 16 | 27 | 1 | 45 | 9.30E+04 | 202 | Suleiman et al. (2005, 2010) |
5.7 | 1,560 | 1,007 | 990 | 1,134 | 2,878 | 94 | 23 | 21 | 0.7 | 33 | 2.80E+05 | 319 | Suleiman et al. (2005, 2010) | |
6.35 | 1,830 | NA | 845 | 1,056 | 2,568 | 128 | 19.5 | NA | NA | 39 | 2.00E+05 | 261 | Halalsheh et al. (2008) | |
7.81 | 191,000 | 893 | 168 | 41.2 | 78 | 9.17 | 8.98 | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | Jamrah et al. (2006) | |
Untreated greywater, average values | 5.44 | 232,250 | 2,021.5 | 508 | 1,155 | 1,688 | NA | NA | NA | N | NA | 2.21E+05 | NA | Ammari et al. (2014) |
Average of light greywater | 7.5 | 20,581.4 | 801.0 | 453.3 | 370.8 | 1,136.0 | 81.5 | 19.8 | 11.0 | 0.8 | 27.7 | 2.12E+04 | 124.0 | |
Average of dark greywater | 6.8 | 80,634.0 | 1,056.3 | 779.4 | 817.5 | 2,186.8 | 84.7 | 21.3 | 16.9 | 1.7 | 71.2 | 1.52E+06 | 204.7 | |
Overall average | 6.9 | 68,123.0 | 1,011.2 | 717.2 | 724.5 | 1,986.6 | 84.0 | 21.0 | 15.9 | 1.5 | 63.1 | 1.22E+06 | 189.6 |
Compared to dark greywater, light greywater in Jordan is less contaminated by microorganisms (coliform and non-coliform bacteria), which total 1.52 x106 and 2.12×104 CFU/100 ml, respectively. The average BOD5 and COD concentrations values of greywater are 724.5 and 1,986.6 mgL−1, respectively. Cossu et al. (2012) used the ratio BOD5/COD to calculate the biodegradability, which was found to be 0.36 for all source types. This value is indicative of the stability of the organic loads present in the greywater (Halalsheh et al. 2008; Cossu et al. 2012).
The average values for all the physicochemical parameters of greywater in Jordan exceed the limits of the latest Jordanian standards for greywater reuse that are reported in Table 1, except for the pH value, which is in the accepted range. This implies that the greywater in Jordan must be adequately treated to be reusable and safe for various reuses.
Utilized greywater treatment technologies
Several greywater treatment technologies have been developed and adapted in Jordan. Table 3 summarizes the typical technologies that are adapted in Jordan. However, there are mainly two widely used on-site household treatment systems that are known as ‘autonomous water management’. These are briefly described below:
# . | Method of greywater treatment . | Reference . |
---|---|---|
1 | Photoreactor systems: combining different treatment methods of advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) such as ozonation (O3), solar ozonation (O3/solar irradiation), hydrogen peroxide oxidation (H2O2), hydrogen peroxide under solar irradiation (H2O2/solar irradiation), peroxonation (H2O2/O3), and solar peroxonation (H2O2/O3/solar irradiation). | Alrousan & Dunlop (2020) |
2 | Three different treatment methods: septic tank followed by intermittent sand filter; septic tank followed by wetlands; and UASB-hybrid reactor. | Halalsheh et al. (2008) |
3 | Drawer compacted sand filter (DCSF). | Assayed et al. (2015) |
4 | A septic tank followed by an aerobic biochar filter. | Dalahmeh et al. (2016) |
5 | A re-circulated vertical flow bioreactor. | Ammari et al. (2014) |
# . | Method of greywater treatment . | Reference . |
---|---|---|
1 | Photoreactor systems: combining different treatment methods of advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) such as ozonation (O3), solar ozonation (O3/solar irradiation), hydrogen peroxide oxidation (H2O2), hydrogen peroxide under solar irradiation (H2O2/solar irradiation), peroxonation (H2O2/O3), and solar peroxonation (H2O2/O3/solar irradiation). | Alrousan & Dunlop (2020) |
2 | Three different treatment methods: septic tank followed by intermittent sand filter; septic tank followed by wetlands; and UASB-hybrid reactor. | Halalsheh et al. (2008) |
3 | Drawer compacted sand filter (DCSF). | Assayed et al. (2015) |
4 | A septic tank followed by an aerobic biochar filter. | Dalahmeh et al. (2016) |
5 | A re-circulated vertical flow bioreactor. | Ammari et al. (2014) |
Simple screen filter: The system is used to treat particle materials and thus protect the irrigation pipes. It is widely used to irrigate plants such as ornamental shrubs and trees around the house in the rural areas. The screen filter, however, requires periodic maintenance and cleaning.
Sedimentation system: the system uses simple septic tanks that allow suspended particles in greywater to flow slowly and settle down at the bottom of the tank, thereby providing purification of the greywater. Usually, it uses one or more sealed barrels standing in a hole outside the house. In some cases, an installed sensor activates pumping when the greywater reaches a certain level. Activated charcoal is used rarely to reduce bad odors.
Typical greywater reuse projects
Jordan has a valuable experience in reusing greywater; this is demonstrated by the realization of numerous projects in almost all over the Jordanian territories. The projects were piloted and managed over the past 30 years, to meet their objectives such as socio-economic, environmental and health benefits (Sarant et al. 2016). The main purposes of greywater reuse projects conducted in Jordan were for irrigation and Toilet flushing. In the year 2003, the usage of greywater was extended to over than 90 villages in the rural areas of Jordan with support from INWRDAM, CARE International and the Ministry of Planning and International Cooperation in Jordan (Bino & Al-Beiruti 2007).
Three successful projects on greywater reusing of rural households to irrigate the shrub and trees planted in their own yards were tested in Adasiyyah, north of Jordan (McIllwaine 2003a). In the first experiment, the greywater produced by dish washing and clothes washing was stored in an open natural pool without treatment, then it was manually used to irrigate olive trees via plastic buckets. In the second experiment, the washing water was routed directly into a row of banana and olive trees. However, the landlord has noticed that the banana trees had a stress reaction to the laundry water while the olive trees did not; therefore, the laundry water was diverted to irrigate the olive trees only. The last experiment was conducted in a house with one water tap, which supplied water for all household uses. Greywater was naturally flowed to plant roots slowly without storage or treatment along with any occasional rain. No adverse effects were noticed on the roots of the trees due to irrigation using the greywater (McIllwaine 2003b).
Another pioneer experiment was the reuse of the ablution waters of the King Abdullah Mosque in Amman; the water was collected and stored on the roof, then it was filtered and reused to irrigate the ornamental plants in the mosque park. No adverse effects were observed on plants after five years of greywater use. Furthermore, the project costs were recovered within one year of project execution due to the savings made in the bill of water consumption (McIllwaine 2003a).
Several projects were also conducted in the southern part of Jordan: namely in the Karak and Tafila provinces. The Tafila project had a duration of two years staring 1st of May 2001 to the 30th of April 2003. It was founded in favor of a small number of households in Ein AlBaida village, province of Tafila. In this project, twenty-five greywater treatment and reuse systems were designed, constructed and installed. The goals were to help the peri-urban poor people to generate income by preserving freshwater and improving gardening with permaculture practices. Furthermore, the systems will provide an environment protection by encouraging best greywater treatment practices application. The project was implemented by INWRDAM and funded by the IDRC (DPMN 2004).
In Karak, a project was implemented between February 2004 and October 2007. In this project has a total 110 units of greywater systems were installed. The quality of treated of greywater that obtained by this project was in accordance with both Jordanian and WHO guidelines for the use of treated wastewater (Bino et al. 2010). The projects of Tafila and Karak were connected by goals and so called ‘Phase I’ and ‘Phase II’, respectively (DPMN 2004; Bino et al. 2010).
Another project was conducted in Rawdat Al-Amir Ali village in the northeastern Badia of Jordan during the period March–August 2005. Members of the local community were also involved in all project activities including a training seminar on the use of project methodologies and tools. Another two pilot plants were designed and installed for two families using two different treatment methods; a septic tank followed by an intermittent sand filter, and a septic tank covered with upward anaerobic sludge (up-flow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB reactor)). The generated greywater quality and quantity were assessed for potential reuse opportunities; however, the quality of greywater must be firstly improved to take into consideration health aspects. Furthermore, it is not recommended to use the World Health Organization guidelines of 1989 as a reference guide lines (Suleiman et al. 2010).
Table 4 provides a summery data of typical greywater reuse projects that have been implemented in several Jordanian regions. These projects were implemented by Environmental, Social Management & Monitoring Plan (ESMMP), which includes necessary mitigation measures of environmental impacts (UN Habitat 2019).
# . | The study . | Area . | Average greywater generation . | Purpose of greywater reuse . | Reference . |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Integrated Wastewater Management Policies and Technologies for Marginal Communities in Jordan | Small villages in Mafraq governorate | 14 (L/c.d) | irrigation | Halalsheh et al. (2008) |
2 | An Evaluation of the Re-circulated Vertical Flow Bioreactor to Recycle Rural Greywater for Irrigation | South-Shuna in the Jordan Valley | 200 (L/c.d) | irrigation | Ammari et al. (2014) |
3 | The Feasibility of Adopting Non-Conventional Wastewater Management Policies for Rural Small Communities | Northeastern Badia | 11.9–18.7 (L/c.d) | irrigation | Suleiman et al. (2005) |
4 | Enhancing Resilience of Host Communities in Jordan by Promoting Sustainable Water Solutions | Rehab Secondary Agricultural School for Girls in Mafraq | 400 (L/d) | irrigation | Assayed et al. (2018) |
5 | Enhancing Resilience of Host Communities in Jordan by Promoting Sustainable Water Solutions | Al-Rubaie Primary School for Girls in Mafraq | 500 (L/d) | irrigation | Assayed et al. (2018) |
6 | Enhancing Resilience of Host Communities in Jordan by Promoting Sustainable Water Solutions | HRH-Princess Muna Centre for the care of the elderly in Zarqa | 1,800 (L/d) | irrigation | Assayed et al. (2018) |
7 | Enhancing Resilience of Host Communities in Jordan by Promoting Sustainable Water Solutions | Badr Al-Koubra Secondary School Girls in Zarqa | 500 (L/d) | toilet flushing | Assayed et al. (2018) |
8 | Enhancing Resilience of Host Communities in Jordan by Promoting Sustainable Water Solutions | Saqr Quraish Primary School for Boys in Ajloun | 800 (L/d) | irrigation | Assayed et al. (2018) |
9 | Enhancing Resilience of Host Communities in Jordan by Promoting Sustainable Water Solutions | Ajloun University College/Applied Balqa University in Ajloun | 140 (L/d) | toilet flushing | Assayed et al. (2018) |
10 | Enhancing Resilience of Host Communities in Jordan by Promoting Sustainable Water Solutions | Al-Housn College/Applied Balqa University in Irbid | 300 (L/d) | toilet flushing | Assayed et al. (2018) |
11 | Grey Water Reuse for Agricultural Purposes in the Jordan Valley | Deir-Alla municipality, Um-Ayyaash area | 50 (L/d) | irrigation | Al-Mashaqbeh et al. (2012) |
12 | Greywater Treatment and Reuse for Poverty Reduction in Jordan | Households in Ein Al-Baida, Tafila | < 500 (L/d) | irrigation | DPMN (2004); Bino & Al-Beiruti (2007); Bino et al. (2010) |
13 | Greywater Use in Rural Home Gardens in Karak Province | Al-Amer villages, Karak | 200–300 (L/d) | irrigation | Bino & Al-Beiruti (2007); Bino et al. (2010) |
14 | Greywater Management in the Northeastern Badia of Jordan | Rawdat Al-Amir Ali | 12–19 (L/c.d) | irrigation | Suleiman et al. (2010) |
15 | Environmental and Social Impact Assessment, Risks Management and Monitoring Plan | Mosques in the villages: Hashimya, Nuzha, Barha, Rabia, and Al Amanarha (Irbid), Zaatari farms (Mafraq) | NA | irrigation | UN Habitat (2019) |
# . | The study . | Area . | Average greywater generation . | Purpose of greywater reuse . | Reference . |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Integrated Wastewater Management Policies and Technologies for Marginal Communities in Jordan | Small villages in Mafraq governorate | 14 (L/c.d) | irrigation | Halalsheh et al. (2008) |
2 | An Evaluation of the Re-circulated Vertical Flow Bioreactor to Recycle Rural Greywater for Irrigation | South-Shuna in the Jordan Valley | 200 (L/c.d) | irrigation | Ammari et al. (2014) |
3 | The Feasibility of Adopting Non-Conventional Wastewater Management Policies for Rural Small Communities | Northeastern Badia | 11.9–18.7 (L/c.d) | irrigation | Suleiman et al. (2005) |
4 | Enhancing Resilience of Host Communities in Jordan by Promoting Sustainable Water Solutions | Rehab Secondary Agricultural School for Girls in Mafraq | 400 (L/d) | irrigation | Assayed et al. (2018) |
5 | Enhancing Resilience of Host Communities in Jordan by Promoting Sustainable Water Solutions | Al-Rubaie Primary School for Girls in Mafraq | 500 (L/d) | irrigation | Assayed et al. (2018) |
6 | Enhancing Resilience of Host Communities in Jordan by Promoting Sustainable Water Solutions | HRH-Princess Muna Centre for the care of the elderly in Zarqa | 1,800 (L/d) | irrigation | Assayed et al. (2018) |
7 | Enhancing Resilience of Host Communities in Jordan by Promoting Sustainable Water Solutions | Badr Al-Koubra Secondary School Girls in Zarqa | 500 (L/d) | toilet flushing | Assayed et al. (2018) |
8 | Enhancing Resilience of Host Communities in Jordan by Promoting Sustainable Water Solutions | Saqr Quraish Primary School for Boys in Ajloun | 800 (L/d) | irrigation | Assayed et al. (2018) |
9 | Enhancing Resilience of Host Communities in Jordan by Promoting Sustainable Water Solutions | Ajloun University College/Applied Balqa University in Ajloun | 140 (L/d) | toilet flushing | Assayed et al. (2018) |
10 | Enhancing Resilience of Host Communities in Jordan by Promoting Sustainable Water Solutions | Al-Housn College/Applied Balqa University in Irbid | 300 (L/d) | toilet flushing | Assayed et al. (2018) |
11 | Grey Water Reuse for Agricultural Purposes in the Jordan Valley | Deir-Alla municipality, Um-Ayyaash area | 50 (L/d) | irrigation | Al-Mashaqbeh et al. (2012) |
12 | Greywater Treatment and Reuse for Poverty Reduction in Jordan | Households in Ein Al-Baida, Tafila | < 500 (L/d) | irrigation | DPMN (2004); Bino & Al-Beiruti (2007); Bino et al. (2010) |
13 | Greywater Use in Rural Home Gardens in Karak Province | Al-Amer villages, Karak | 200–300 (L/d) | irrigation | Bino & Al-Beiruti (2007); Bino et al. (2010) |
14 | Greywater Management in the Northeastern Badia of Jordan | Rawdat Al-Amir Ali | 12–19 (L/c.d) | irrigation | Suleiman et al. (2010) |
15 | Environmental and Social Impact Assessment, Risks Management and Monitoring Plan | Mosques in the villages: Hashimya, Nuzha, Barha, Rabia, and Al Amanarha (Irbid), Zaatari farms (Mafraq) | NA | irrigation | UN Habitat (2019) |
CONCLUSIONS
Greywater could provide a vital source of water that contributes to the reduction of freshwater consumption and enhance its sustainability. However, adequate greywater reuse technologies need to be properly implemented. The present work aimed to provide a review of the Jordanian experience in greywater reuse over the past 30 years in the country's search to find an efficient solution to the scarcity of water resources.
The Jordanian experience in greywater reuse is characterized by: (a) greywater projects were implemented in rural areas that severely suffer from the lack of water for various purposes; (b) most projects are based locally, using on-site household implemented systems, or the so called ‘autonomous water management’; (c) the projects provided a valid support to the economic setting of urban regions inhabitants; (d) the projects contributed to raising the local public awareness towards water sustainability and the alternative methodologies of best practices of greywater reuse.
Furthermore, the physicochemical characteristics of greywater in Jordan were found to exceed the latest Jordanian standards for agricultural uses. Therefore, specific further treatment processes might deem necessary to avoid any controversy effects of the reuse of greywater.
In addition, the reuse of greywater in Jordan is still limited and needs to be expanded geographically to include most of the Jordanian regions. It seems, however, that financial issues represent the main obstacle to achieving this prospect. In particular, it is not financially convenient for families that consume a small amount of water due to the expensive cost of the treatment system taking in consideration the long time needed to recover the existing system modification costs. Furthermore, the greywater drainage system in the newly constructed homes is not separated from the black water due to lack of public awareness and the lack of appropriate regulations.
In conclusion, the overall Jordanian experience in greywater reuse, however, merits consideration for various reasons; it has been experimented over a period of three decades and has been implemented in numerous rural areas that lack sanitary systems and sustainable water resources for agricultural activities. The lessons learned from the extended Jordanian greywater reuse experience have different aspects. First, the experience proves the effectiveness of using simple treatment greywater plants in mitigating the problem of water shortage in rural areas in terms of saving freshwater consumption. Second, several simple low-cost technologies such as septic tank and sand filter methods are available and proved efficient. Finally, the selection of the most adequate greywater treatment system is based on the intended application; the operational, safety and environmental consequences of the system must also be taken into consideration.
AVAILABILITY OF DATA AND MATERIALS
All the data analyzed in this research were collected from published literature and are duly cited in this publication.
COMPETING INTERESTS
The authors declare they have no competing interests.
AUTHORS' CONTRIBUTIONS
Al Arni Saleh and Elwaheidi Mahmoud developed the research idea. Both authors have also contributed to writing the manuscript. Alsammani A. M. Salih, Djamel Gheraout and Mohammed Matouq have contributed in literature and manuscript review. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research has been funded by the Research Deanship of University of Ha’il, Saudi Arabia, through the Project RG-20 113.
DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT
All relevant data that are cited in this paper were obtained from numerous references in the published literature. The links to these references are reported in the References section.